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Zitierweise / cite as:
Entwicklungsländerstudien / hrsg. von Margarete Payer. -- Teil I: Grundgegebenheiten. -- Kapitel 8: Tierische Produktion. -- 9. Seidenraupen / zusammengestellt von Alois Payer. -- 3. Teil III. -- Fassung vom 2018-10-08. -- URL: http://www.payer.de/entwicklung/entw0893.htm. -- [Stichwort].
Erstmals publiziert: 2000-07-20
Überarbeitungen: 2018-10-08 [grundlegend überarbeitet] ;2001-02-21 [Update]
Anlass: Lehrveranstaltung "Einführung in Entwicklungsländerstudien". HBI Stuttgart, 1998/99
©opyright: Dieser Text steht der Allgemeinheit zur Verfügung. Eine Verwertung in Publikationen, die über übliche Zitate hinausgeht, bedarf der ausdrücklichen Genehmigung der Herausgeberin.
Dieser Text ist Bestandteil der Abteilung Entwicklungsländer von Tüpfli's Global Village Library.
Skript, das von den Teilnehmern am Wahlpflichtfach "Entwicklungsländerstudien" an der HBI Stuttgart erarbeitet wird,
Die Seidenraupe ist -- wohl infolge Degeneration durch jahrtausendelange Domestikation -- ziemlich anfällig gegen parasitäre Erkrankungen. Die wichtigsten parasitären Erkrankungen sind:
Wichtige weitere Seidenraupenschädlinge sind
Abb.: Wichtigste Schadinsekten bei der Seidenraupenzucht: 1 "Black fly
beetle", 2 "Da Gu Dao", 3 "Cotton pink bollworm"
[Quelle der Abb.: Silk reeling : cocoon silk study / chief editor: Huang Guo Rui. -- Entfield, NH : Science Publishers, ©1998. -- ISBN 157808038X. -- S. 298]
Abb.: Seidenspinner: 1 = Bombyx mori; 2 = Saturnia cecropia; 3 = Saturnia
pernyi; 4 = Saturnia cynthia
[Quelle der Abb.: Brehms Tierleben, 1893]
"Mit der Ausbreitung des Maulbeerseidenspinners haben sich -- so wie bei anderen Nutztieren -- unterschiedliche Rassen und innerhalb der Rassen mehrere Varietäten herausgebildet. Abgesehen von gewissen morphologischen Varianten der Falter -- einer quergebänderten und braunen Form -- weisen die Larven und Imagos der Rassen keine wesentlichen Unterschiede auf, wohl aber die Farbe der Raupen und Farbe, Beschaffenheit und Form der Kokons. Die Selektion wurde auch im Hinblick auf die Kokonqualität betrieben.
Die Rassengruppen des Maulbeerseidenspinners unterscheiden sich zunächst durch ihre geographische Verbreitung in Japan, China, Vorderasien, Südeuropa und Amerika.
Für die Klassifizierung spielen Form und Farbe der Kokons eine Rolle. Man unterscheidet fast kugelige, ovale, eingeschnürte und solche mit zugespitzten Enden.
Farblich können weiße, gelbe, goldgelbe, fleischfarben-bräunliche und grünliche Kokons unterschieden werden. Diese Kokonfarben sind oft die Grundlage für Rassenbezeichnungen wie „Weißspinner", „Gelbspinner" oder „Goldspinner". Die Raupenfärbung spielt keine Rolle für die Farbe des Kokons, wohl aber die Farbe der Hämolymphe der Raupe. Die innen am Grunde der Bauchfüße durchschimmernde gelbe und helle Färbung lässt weiße Kokons erwarten.
Auch Größe, Masse und Rohseidengehalt sowie Verarbeitungseigenschaften der Kokons schwanken zwischen den Rassen. Mehrbrütige Rassen haben kleinere Kokons; weiße Kokons sind größer als gelbe. Raupen kleinerer chinesischer Rassen in Südeuropa gezogen werden größer und geben größere Kokons. Größere Rassen werden unter anderen Bedingungen kleiner.
Wesentlich die Ökonomie der Seidenproduktion beeinflussend ist die Ein- oder Mehrbrütigkeit der unterschiedlichen Rassen.
- Fast alle europäischen und vorderasiatischen Rassen sind einbrütig (annual), d.h. sie entwickeln nur eine Faltergeneration pro Jahr.
- Japanische und chinesische Rassen sind vorwiegend zweibrütig (bivoltin). Die Eier der ersten Faltergeneration eines Jahres entwickeln sich unter dem Einfluss höherer Temperaturen sofort, während die Eier der zweiten Faltergeneration überwintern.
- Rassen von Südchina, Ceylon und den Philippinen können vielbrütig (polyvoltin) sein. Die Winterruhe der Eier ist hier völlig verschwunden.
Klimatische Verhältnisse können diesen Voltinismus beeinflussen. So schlagen z. B. europäische Rassen in tropischen und subtropischen Regionen in Vielbrütigkeit um und umgekehrt werden zwei- oder mehrbrütige Rassen bei der Überstellung in gemäßigte Breiten einbrütig.
Gegenwärtig existieren besonders im asiatischen Raum vorwiegend Rassenkreuzungen bzw. Rassenhybriden aus ein- und zweibrütigen Faltern. Die Bezeichnung der Rassen und Hybriden erfolgt mit Buchstaben und Ziffern.
Die reinen Rassen werden in speziellen Forschungsinstituten oder Zuchtstationen verschiedener Länder gehalten und weiterentwickelt."
[Legel, Siegfried. -- In: Nutztiere der Tropen und Subtropen / Hrsg. Siegfried Legel. -- Stuttgart [u.a.] : Hirzel.. -- Bd. 3: Pferde/Esel, Schweine, Elefanten, Geflügel, Bienen, Seidenspinner. -- ©1993. -- ISBN 3777604976. -- S. 689f.]
Varietäten von Bombyx mori in Thailand:
"The nineteen varieties so far identified are:
- Nang Noi,
- Nang Lai,
- Nang Luang,
- Nang Kiew,
- Nang Sew,
- Nang Num,
- Na Noi,
- NK. .4 (Nong Khai),
- NK.1
- PC. 1 (Pak Chong),
- PC. 21,
- RE.1 (Roi Et),
- RE. 3,
- CB. 9 (Chonnabot),
- CB. 2,
- Thai Surin,
- Phut Thai Song,
- Block Nang Sew,
- None Rue-See.
(Data provided by Chainat Monaiyapong, North East Crop Development Project, 1988, Tha Phra, Thailand.)
The names of native silk moths vary from place to place." [Conway, S. 64]
Seidenspinner in den Westghats, Indien:
"The Western Ghats has a wide range of silkworm races. The most commonly used is Pure Mysore, or PM for short. This race is hardy and resists diseases.
Silkworm races differ in certain important characteristics of interest to sericulturists:
- Voltinism: The number of generations completed by an organism in a year is known as "voltinism".
- Univoltines complete one life cycle (from egg to adult to egg) in one year.
- Bivoltines complete two such cycles, and
- multivoltines (or polyvoltines) complete more than two.
In the Western Ghats region, people use bivoltine silkworms such as Kalimpong-A (also known simply as KA), as well as multivoltines (such as Pure Mysore).
- Moultinism: This is the number of times the larva moults during its lifetime. Different races of silkworms moult as many as six times or just twice. In the Western Ghats, only those that moult four times are used because they are most economical.
- Place of origin: Silkworm races are classified as
- Japanese,
- Chinese,
- European and
- Southeast Asian.
Western Ghat sericulturists make use of all except the European races because these require colder temperatures.
- Cocoon shape: Different silkworms spin cocoons of different shapes. Silkworms spin
- round,
- oval,
- dumbell- and
- spindle-shaped cocoons.
Abb.: Formen der Kokons verschiedener MaulbeerspinnerrassenAll of these types are raised in the Western Ghats. • Cocoon colour: Different silkworms spin cocoons of various hues: white, green, yellow, golden and flesh. In the Western Ghats, KA, NB7 and NB4D2 races spin white silk; PM spins green cocoons.
"Sericulturists face various problems with existing types of silkworms:
- Lack of seasonal and regional silkworm races.
- Lack of hardy, productive, disease-resistant silkworm races.
- Shortage of bivoltine breeds (that produce two generations a year).
More silkworm breeds should be bred to give rearers a choice of the most suitable race for particular situations. Some 34 desirable characteristics have been identified. Breeding is difficult because almost all of these characteristics are controlled by more than one gene. This makes it impossible to develop a silkworm race with all the good characters. Researchers are trying to breed races that have just one or two of the desired characters. For instance, CAC and HR14 races are hardy and bivoltine; NCD has superior dumbbell-shaped cocoons; CDS2 is temperature tolerant.
It is also necessary to conserve existing local races of silkworms to conserve the biodiversity of this important species.
Mulberry silkworm species
- Bombyx mandarina (wild ancestor)*
- Bombyx mori (currently used commercially)*
- Bombyx textor
- Bombyx croesi
- Bombyx fortunatus
- Bombyx arracanensis
- Bombyx sinensis* (B. meridionalis)
- Theophila religiosa
- Rondotia menciana
* Found in the Western Ghats"
[Biodiversity in the Western Ghats : an information kit. -- New Delhi : WWF, 1994. -- Darin: Mulberry silkworms. -- In: Humanity development library = HDL : for sustainable development and basic human needs. -- Version 2.0. -- Antwerp : Global Help Projects, 1998. -- 1 CD-ROM. -- {Sie können diese CD-ROM für 30$ hier bestellen: http://www.oneworld.org/globalprojects/humcdrom/order.htm}. -- Online zugänglich: URL: http://media.payson.tulane.edu:8083/. -- Zugriff am 2001-02-21]
Einen Eindruck von der Vielfalt von Seiden gibt die folgende Übersicht aus Indien:
"India basically produces four different varieties of Silk:
- Mulberry
- Tussar
- Muga
- Eri
Certain other types Silks which are Bye-products of main process are also produced in India, namely,
- Dupion
- Filature
- Matka
- Katiya
- Ghicha
- Balkal
- Noil
- Spun
Abb.: Indische SeidenThe main production centres being the states of Karnataka, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Maharastra, Assam and to some extent Kashmir.
Abb.: Indische Staaten mit Seidenraupenzucht
- Mulberry: The Cultivated silkworm, Bombyx mori feeds on the leaves of the mulberry tree. This variety of Silk is mostly cultivated in Karnataka and Kashmir.
- Dupion: An irregular, rough silk reeled from double cocoons or cocoons spun side-by-side which are interlocked, making it necessary to reel them together. The unevenness of the yarn confines its use.
- Filature: A raw silk which is reeled by machine as distinct from silk prepared by hand in cottage industry.
- Matka: silk is obtained from waste Mulberry silk by hand spinning without removing the gum (sericin). Cocoons required to produce Matka are mainly obtained from Karnataka and Kashmir but spiining is mostly done in the villages of Malda and Murshidabad districts in West Bengal by women by hand spinning. Some of the well-known villages such as Sujapur, Islampur, Dariapur have given their names to the Matka yarns produced in these villages.
- Tussar: Tussar Silk is produced by the larvae of several species of moth such as Antheraea mylitta, Antheraca proylei, Antherea pernyi and Antheraca yamamai.The insects mostly live in the wild on bushes and trees on which they feed. Tussar silk is spun by the worm in a single-shelled, oval cocoon, with a fine-grained, hard, non-flossy shell. The cocoons are generally yellow or grey and are hard & compact.
The cocoons are boiled in chemical solution or treated with enzyme to soften. Thereafter yarn is reeled either in dry process (by drying the cocoons) or by wet reeling process.
- The portion of Tussar cocoons leftover after about 60% reelable silk is spun into Katiya yarn.
- The pierced cocoons are spun into Ghicha yarn while
- peduncles are utilised for production of Balkal yarn.
- Muga: Native of Assam and named after Assamese word "Muga" which indicates the amber (brown) colour of cocoon. It belongs to same family as Tussar. It is popular for its natural golden colour, glossy fine textures and durability. Muga silk is produced by Antheraea assama westwood which is an endemic species prevalent in the Brahmaputra valley and adjoining hills.
Muga silkworm is a polyhageous insect which feeds on leaves of Som, Soalu and other plants which grows abundantly in Brahmaputra valley.
- Eri: The word Eri is a derivative from Sanskrit nomenclature for Castor Plant, eranada. Castor leaf is the main food for the Eri silkworms and so named as Eri. This is the only completely domesticated non-mulberry variety. Its silk is spun as it can not be reeled.
- Spun Silk: A Silk yarn made of short lengths of silk obtained from silk wastes, pierced cocoons or floss which gives yarn its characteristic brilliance. There are two grades of yarn Schappe and Bourette. It is spun on special machinery which in some ways is akin to cotton and worsted.
- Noil: Short fibres removed in combing operation of yarn making of Spun silk is spun into Noil yarn. Noil is mostly produced in Karnataka and Madras."
[About silk / J. J. Exporters Ltd. -- Calcutta. -- URL: http://www.jjexporters.com/divers.htm. -- Zugriff am 2000-05-12]
"Although not usually considered a minilivestock activity, wild African silkmoths have been exploited in the past but could now be partially domesticated to generate valuable income for farmers. Asian countries are no longer producing enough raw silk to satisfy demand but African farmers could reap the benefits of this market opportunity by supplementing their income with silk production, or sericulture. ICIPE [International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology. -- URL: http://216.252.243.186/cgi-bin/WebObjects/ICIPE. -- Zugriff am 2001-02-21], based in Nairobi, is providing farmers in Kenya and Uganda, with the opportunity to produce valuable tussar silk from indigenous African silkmoths.
Until recently, very few people were aware of the potential of wild African silkmoths. In some regions, silkworms (e.g. Bunea alcinoe) were killed in large quantities and eaten as a source of protein. Only in Botswana were they exploited for their silk but there they were collected in such large numbers that several species became extinct. However, from the variety of wild silkmoths to be found across Africa, two indigenous Gonometa species, found only on Acacia trees, have been selected for breeding and production by ICIPE. Unlike Asian silkmoths, which have been domesticated over hundreds of years, the wild African silkmoths are not easy to rear in captivity. So ICIPE has set up a system of partial-domestication: the moths have to be caught in the wild in order to lay their eggs in the laboratory but once they are hatched, the larvae are released back into the wild to feed on Acacia leaves until they spin their cocoons. However, domestic rearing of wild silk may soon be possible, as the edible saturniid moth (Bunea alcinoe) has been successfully reared in the laboratory on leaves of its host plant, Balanites aegyptica. Attempts are now being made to develop an artificial diet for laboratory rearing.
Silk production requires effort and persistence, particularly from the wild silkmoths. However, local farmers are offered training by ICIPE for collecting cocoons in a sustainable manner to preserve wild populations and to obtain enough silk to provide them with a generous income. Dr Suresh Raina, Project Co-ordinator for Commercial Insects at ICIPE, is responsible for promoting sericulture in Africa and he is particularly keen to include regions where although wild silkmoths have not been exploited directly by humans, their populations are still threatened as their habitats are being eroded. Wild silk production can therefore provide a strong economic incentive for rural communities to adopt sound land management practices in addition to subsistence agriculture.
In parallel, the success of domesticated sericulture, which is also beginning to flourish in Africa, is demonstrated by the number of groups now involved in silk production in Kenya: over 100 farmer groups of varying sizes (from a few to over 200) have become interested in this valued micro-enterprise. In Tanzania, about 300 farmers near Arusha are involved in silk and honey production and in Uganda, reeling and de-reeling machines have been provided by ICIPE to help post harvest processing of silk cocoons. For domestic silk production in Africa, ICIPE has developed a hybrid by crossing a number of domestic silkmoth (Bombyx mori) strains, which is suited to climatic conditions in Africa and produces a high quality silk."
[In a spin for silk. -- In: New agriculturist online. -- URL:http://www.new-agri.co.uk/99-3/focuson/focuson7.html. -- Zugriff am 2000-05-12]
Im Folgenden sind einzelne Länder nur angeführt, wenn das Export- bzw. Importvolumen mehr als 1000 Tonnen beträgt:
|
Menge in Tausend Tonnen |
Wert in Millionen US$ |
|
|---|---|---|
| Welt | 31,2 | 390 |
| China | 12,3 | 251 |
| China, Hongkong | 2,1 | 43 |
| Turkmenistan | 4,1 | 2 |
| Kirgisien | 1,9 | 1 |
| Usbekistan | 1,8 | 6 |
| Deutschland | 1,3 | 31 |
| Pakistan | 1,2 | 0,4 |
| Indien | 1,1 | 8 |
| Nordkorea | 1,0 | 6 |
|
Import in Tausend Tonnen |
Wert in Millionen US$ |
|
|---|---|---|
| Welt | 31,4 | 469 |
| China | 6,5 | 13 |
| Italien | 4,0 | 102 |
| Japan | 3,4 | 73 |
| Bangladesh | 2,4 | 62 |
| Indien | 2,2 | 59 |
| Thailand | 2,2 | 5 |
| China, Hongkong | 2,0 | 37 |
| Deutschland | 2,0 | 34 |
| Kirgisien | 1,6 | 1 |
| Südkorea | 1,5 | 36 |
Man beachte die Differenzen zwischen den Export- und Importangaben: auch FAO-Statistiken sind mit Vorsicht zu verwenden!
[Quelle: FAOSTAT. -- URL: http://apps.fao.org/lim500/nph-wrap.pl?Trade.CropsLivestockProducts&Domain=SUA&servlet=1. -- Zugriff am 2000-05-17]
Die folgenden Ausführungen geben den Stand von 1991 wieder:
"Cocoon is an important agriculture auxiliary product under the state plan procurement and still is a fixed price product. Its price is jointly fixed and administered by their state Price Bureau and concerned main silk departments. No region or department can re-adjust or change this price. In order to promote planned development of silk industry, under the national general policy guidelines: "Promote production of silkworm cocoon and raw silk, have a firm foothold in domestic market, strive for greater exports", the state council formulated the 'cocoon price policy' superior cocoon higher price, inferior cocoon lower price, grading according to quality, fix prices according to grades". This has played an important role in developing cocoon production, encouraging sericulturists to raise quality of silkworms and cocoons. A rational implementation of cocoon price policy, can correctly reflect the genuine value of cocoons and simultaneously also pay attention to three viz. state, collective and individual, can still regulate the relations between agriculture, industry, commerce (trade) -- the three sides and one system, can mobilise the activism towards silk industry, developing of cocoon production by peasant and socialist modernisation of China. In order to implement the cocoon price policy in a better way, it is foremost essential to scientifically decide the basic standard price of cocoon. The cocoon price policy in the post new China period is according to the production costs of sericulturist, combined with raw silk prices to ensure a reasonable profit to sericulturist farmer, thereby encourage him to grow more mulberry, rear silkworms, produce and supply high quality cocoons as raw material to silk plants. At the same time, also examine whether the definite accumulated funds with the silk plant can be used to expand production and speed up the socialist modernisation of industry in China. In the initial period of founding of PRC, the basic standard price of cocoon was fixed as per the production cost. The estimated production cost of 50 kg of fresh cocoons (green) is about 35 SHI MI (one SHI = 90 kg total 315 kg). It includes 7.14% as silkworm breeding cost, 64.29% towards mulberry leaves, 17.86% labour, 10.71% miscellaneous and profit. Its calculation formula is as follows:
Price of 50 kg fresh (green) cocoon =
- silkworm breeding cost
- + mulberry leaves cost
- + human labour cost
- + miscellaneous cost
- + profits.
The price of 50 kg dry cocoons =
(price of 50 kgs. of fresh cocoons + purchasing and drying expenses of cocoons) x drying discount of fresh cocoons.
Reviewing the forty-year old fresh cocoon evaluation standards and the evaluation of basic standard price, upholding three things viz. cocoon shell ratio, reelable cocoon percentage and reelability percentage, reflects the basic factors concerning cocoon quality and play a positive role in protecting cocoon shell, raising cocoon quality, upholding the cocoon policy of "superior cocoons higher price". The various regions, in accordance with their specific requirements, also formulated various supplementary measures to prevent development of defective cocoons.
The basic standard price of silkworm cocoon is manifested in the implementation of cocoon price policy. At the time of determining the above standard price, if cocoons are of comparatively low quality, the cocoon shell rate of deflossed cocoons is only about 16%, it gets reflected in the cocoon price policy. Afterwards through several price readjustments, the prices can be revised on the basis of old cocoon quality. Generally the basic standard price of cocoons excepting in 1953 when it was little low, has always increased. Particularly, in the beginning of 1980s, the increase was quite distinct. This is also closely related to the speedy development of silk industry as well as the increase in prices of other agricultural auxiliary products. At present due to improvement in the quality of silkworm, the cocoon shell ratio and dried cocoon shell weight ratio have increased and in accordance with the price policy principle of grading as per quality, the actual price of cocoons far exceeds the basic standard price. Besides, apart from regulated price, various regions can as per the specific actual situation award bonus to the cocoon sellers."
[Silk reeling : cocoon silk study / chief editor: Huang Guo Rui. -- Entfield, NH : Science Publishers, ©1998. -- ISBN 157808038X. -- S. 132 - 134]
Abb.: Somnuk Permthongkum <20. Jhdt.>: Traditionelles Seidenweben
in Häusern an einem Kanal Bangkoks, Thailand
In Thailand ist die Tradition der Seidenherstellung sehr alt:
"Thai textiles today have a long history from which they have evolved still maintaining many of the ancient patterns and technical intricacy. However, the distinguishing elements of each area and ethnic group are fast being replaced by the demands of the market for more standard products. Earliest evidence of textiles woven in Thailand are fragments of plain weave cotton, silk and hemp of the Ban Chiang culture dating to 700 BC. The development of the loom from back-strap to standing frome looms has not been recorded, but today three major loom types are used in the village and a flyshuttle loom in industry, which was introdced in the late 19th century. The major raw materials used are still silk, cotton and hemp as discovered over two thousand years ago in Ban Chiang.
The major ethno-lingustic group in Thailand today is the Tai, of which the Central Thai are the ruling class. Minority Tai groups include the
- Tai Yuan, Tai Lue, Lao Khrang and Tai Phuan in the north;
- the Tai Lao, Nyor, Saek, Kaleung and Phutai in the northeast; and
- the Tai Dam and Tai Yuan near Bangkok.
Other ethno-linguistic groups include peoples of Mon-Khmer linguistic origin such as the Lawa in the north, the upland Khmer, the So, the Kui and the Brew. Tibeto-Burman linguistic origin live in the hills of the north and are called the hilltribes. Of the former the Hmong and the Mien are the two major groups, while the latter includes the Karen, Lahu, Akha and Lisu groups.
Each of these major linguistic groups have distinctive textiles with different applications of techniques, motifs, colour and raw materials. The largest group, the Tai, show distinct elements that are recognizable as Tai, but at the same time each sub-group display sufficient differences in their weaving as to be easily identifiable, particularily the textiles of the past.
Central Thai textiles were influenced by the court, which in turn was influenced by imports from Kampuchae, India, Persia and China. Indian influence was clearly seen in the weaving of the Khmer, whose textiles were used by the Central Tai court after the taking of Angkor in 1431 until the colonization of Kampuchae by the French in 1879. The Thai court also imported textiles from India and Persia, evidence of which dates to the 17th century but probably started much earlier than this. In 1670 the Thai court employed the Dutch V.O.C. to start.
In the period of King Rama V. (1868-1 910) a factory for silk weaving and a weaving school were established with Kromameun Phichai Manit Tharodom (Phra Ong Chao Phen Phatana Phong) as Manager and Japanese expert Mr. Toyama as technician. Textiles were woven for specific persons, their design decided by rang and status. The King and his immediate family could wear designer fabric (Thai :pha lai yang) gold painted fabric (Thai : pha lai yang khien thong) and gold brocades. The general public was not allowed to wear designer fabric but quantities of low quality prints made of second grade cottons were imported from India since the 17th century by European trading companies for general use. Home weaving by Central Thai women was not popular, in contrast to other Tai subgroups.
In the outer regions of the Thai Kingdom textiles for women's everyday and ceremonia costume showed distinctive local characteristics which would enable quick identification of status, ethnic origin and home town, while textiles woven for men were less specific, with the exception of men's ceremonial cloths. Textiles woven for clothing were made in specific sizes and folded or joined to create traditional garments which did not require further cutting or fittion. These included
- a woman's tubular ski rt (Thai : pha sin);
- a man's sarong (Thai :salong);
- a ling cloth to be worn by men or women by wrapping around the waist and twisting the ends at the front, passing through the legs and tuckin in at the waist at the back (Khmer : chon kab en),
- the short version of this was worn in the north (northern Tahi : pha chet) and
- an all purpose cloth (Thai : pha khama).
- Plain fabric was woven in both cotton and silk to make baggy weap-around trousers (nothern Thai : tieo sado )
- and a variety of shirts for men and women, including
- monks robes.
Specific textiles woven for the temple were
- banners (northern Thai : tung) and
- book binders (Thai : pha ho khampi).
Production of home-woven textiles in the past was carried out by women for their own immediate family. Laborious techniques and intricate details were follwoed with no restriction in design due to time. Thus extraordinary textiles were woven and handed dewn through families. Motifs of prehistoric and animist origins abound among the textiles of the Tai sub-groups with minimal influence of Indian and Chinese motifs.
Popular Tai motifs in Thailand are
- hooks (Thai : lai Kho),
- ferns (Thai : lai dik kut),
- river dragons (Thai : lai nak), and
- stylised elephants,
- birds and
- horses.
- Geometric designs have taken floral names such as jasmine (Thai : lai dok keo) and sandlewook flower (Thai : lai dok chan)"
Nachdem in der Zentralregion Thailand in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts durch die Öffnung für den Welttextilhandel billig produzierte Stoffe erhältlich waren, begann mangels Nachfrage auf dem Markt der Zerfall der Produktion von Seidenstoffen. Besonders im Nordosten blieb aber noch eine Restproduktion erhalten, vorwiegend für den Eigenbedarf und die regionalen Märkte.
Mit der Eröffnung der Bahnlinie nach Korat (Nakhon Ratchasima) im Jahre 1900 kommt es zum Import billiger Stoffe auch nach Nordostthailand. Dies führt zum fast völligen Zerfall der einheimischen Textil-Hausindustrie. Als Gegenmaßnahme lädt der thailändische König japanische Experten ein, die der Bevölkerung Nordostthailands bessere Seidenproduktionsmethoden beibringen sollen. In Korat wird eine Seiden-Schule gegründet. Einige Hundert Mädchen aus den Dörfern absolvieren diese Schule. Trotzdem sind die Bemühung zur Wiederbelebung der heimindustriellen Seidenproduktion ein Fehlschlag: es mangelt am Interesse der Bevölkerung.
Nach dem zweiten Weltkrieg baut ab 1946 der Amerikaner James (Jim) Thompson (geb. 1906, 1967 in Malaysia spurlos verschwunden) in Bangkok eine Seidenindustrie auf, die ganz auf den Export für den westlichen Markt ausgerichtet ist: Thai Silk Company Ltd.:
"Also in 1946 he [Jim Thompson], he became interested in the commercial possibilities of Thai silk, a lustrous, handwoven fabric that had once been produced in quantity but that had been almost displaced by competition from cheap machine-made goods. Only a few families were at that time still in the silk-weaving business, mostly in an old section of Bangkok called Bang Krua, across the klong from the site of the present Thompson house.
Mr. Thompson was convinced that the beauty and quality of the silk would have an appeal outside of Thailand, and accordingly he gathered as many samples as he could find and went to New York to see what interest they would stir among sophisticated buyers. The response was sufficiently encouraging for him to return to Bangkok and, on a small Investment, to found the Thai Silk Company Ltd., of which he became managing director. To the ancient manufacturing process he introduced modern dyes and new designs and also set standards of production; the actual weaving. however, continued to be done largely in homes on a cottage-industry basis, just as it had in the past.
Abb.: Bucheinband aus moderner Thai-SeideThe venture was a notable success. Within a few years, Thai silk had become a well-known luxury item throughout the world, extensively used in fashion and interior decoration as well as in the theater (The King and I) and films (Ben Hur). With the founding of several hundred other independent silk companies in Bangkok, it also became one of Thailand's outstanding export commodities and perhaps the country's most famous single product. During the 1950's. Mr. Thompson went several times to Burma by invitation to advise that country in its textile industry, and in 1962, in recognition of his contribution to Thailand, the Thai government awarded him the Order of the White Elephant."
[Warren, William (text) ; Brake, Brian (photographs): The house on the klong : the Bangkok home and Asian art collection of James Thompson. -- Tokyo : Privately printed, ©1968. -- S. 14 - 15]
1955 besuchte Königin Sirikit (geb. 1932) den Nordosten (Isan), die ärmste Gegend Thailands:
"During the first Royal visit to the people of the North-Eastern provinces in 1955, Her Majesty was deeply impressed in "mat mi" [= Ikat, s.unten] phasins worn by villagers coming to greet their King and Queen.
During the 1970 visit to distribute articles of necessity to victims of a devastating flood in Nakhon Phanom Province. His Majesty the King remarked that such a relief-effort was only a temporary kind and that there should be long-term to stand on their own feet.
His Majesty the King's remarks and Her Majesty the Queen's admiration in the beauty of mat mi textiles led to Her Majesty the Queen's promotion of Thai silk weaving as a cottage industry for villagers to earn their supplementary income that could support their families during hardship deriving from drought or flood.
Later, Her Majesty assigned Thanpuying Suprapada Kasemsant, Private Secretary to Her Majesty, and Khunying Charungjit Teekara, a lady-in-waiting to Her Majesty, to travel to the homes of the villagers in the provinces of the north-eastern region such as Nakhon Phanom, Roi Et, Maha Sarakham to buy mat mi textiles.
Her Majesty the Queen personally inspected the mat mi textiles that were bought and encouraged the weavers to increase the number of their works Her Majesty the Queen also gave recommendations on silk worms, dyes, patterns and quality of mat mi textiles to the weavers. Prescription eye-glasses and weaving instruments were usually given to the weavers, reflecting Her Majesty the Queen's concerns over them.
Her Majesty's assistance for the weavers came entirely from Her personal Purse until charitable persons expressed their desire to have an opportunity to help assisting those people. Therefore, the Foundation for the Promotion of Supplementary Occupations and Related Techniques (SUPPORT. -- Webpräsenz: http://www.mahidol.ac.th/Thailand/monarchy/support.html. -- Zugriff am 2001-02-21) of Her Majesty Queen Sirikit of Thailand was established in 1976, primarily aiming to increase the villagers' income and later on to conserve and promote Thai handicrafts. The name significantly reflects Her Majesty's dedication to the foundation. Apart from being the Foundation's president, Her Majesty also supervises the foundation's working procedures.Founded in 1979, The Supplementary Occupations Training Center in the Chitralada Palace [Königlicher Palast in Bangkok] is a center for the promotion of Supplementary Occupations nationwide. Her Majesty the Queen and the Royal Family select members of the poor families to be trained at the center. Not only gaining knowledge about handicrafts ranging from silver and golden neilloware, silverware, goldenware to silk and cotton weaving, accommodation, and other fringe benefits are also available.
Nowadays, handicrafts made by the trainees of the Supplementary Occupations Training Center at the Chitralada Palace and by the local people all over the country are displayed at a handicraft showroom in the compound of the Chitralada Palace. Visitors are allowed to appriciate and purchase them during working hours.
Abb.: I. M. Königin Sirikit, in mat mi gekleidet
Abb.: I. M. Kronprinzessin Sirindhorn, in mat mi gekleidetIt might be said that Her Majesty the Queen is the leader in the promotion of mat mi textiles as she always wears mat mi silk clothings both in Thai and international styles and also persuades her ladies-in-waiting-to wear clothes of mat mi materials.
For further promotion Her Majesty the Queen has many times given instructions that silk and mat mi fashion shows and sales be arranged both in the Palace and other places. Unsurprisingly, supports come from many sharable persons.Her Majesty's determination to assist the poor people and to revive and conserve traditional Thai handicrafts is deeply appreciated by the Thai citizen."
[Her Majesty The Queen and Thai silk conservation / The External Cultural Relations Division Office of The National Culture Commission. -- Last updated : 08 Aug 1996. -- URL: http://www.mahidol.ac.th/Thailand/art/silk.html. -- Zugriff am 2000-05-11]
Dieses Engagement der Königin führte dazu, dass die Nachfrage nach und damit Preise für mat-mi-Stoffe (Thai Ikats) seit 1980 enorm angestiegen sind, was die arbeitsintensive Produktion solcher Stoffe viel attraktiver macht.
Abb.: Mat mi (Schussikat), Seide, Laos, um 1990
mat mi ist die Thai-Bezeichnung für Ikat. Ikat ist eine Färbetechnik, die zu den sogenannten Reserveverfahren gehört. Während bei anderen Reserveverfahren (z.B. Tritik, Plangi, Schablonendruck, Batik) der fertig gewebte Stoff gefärbt wird, werden beim Ikat die Fäden vor dem Weben so gefärbt, dass sie beim Weben in einfacher Leinenbindung ein kompliziertes Muster ergeben. Je nachdem, ob die Schussfäden, die Kettfäden oder beide durch Reservierung gefärbt werden, spricht man von
Zu Musterung werden die Fäden auf ein Gatter gespannt, bündelweise zusammengefasst und durch Umwickeln (evtl. auch andere Weise) reserviert. Dann werden die Fäden im Farbbad gefärbt: dort wo sie umwickelt sind, nehmen sie keine Farbe an. Nach dem Trocknen wird aufgebunden bzw. für den nächsten Färbevorgang entsprechend abgebunden. Beim Weben muss man peinlich darauf achten, dass die Musterungen der Fäden richtig zu liegen kommen: bei Schussikat und Doppelikat muss jeder einzelne Schuss ausgerichtet werden. Dies macht den Webvorgang sehr zeitaufwendig.
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"In producing each and every piece of Mudmee [= mat mi] silk, a long process has to be followed. At the very first thoughts of wanting to rear silkworms, one must look around to see if feeding for such worms is adequately available. Silkworms feed on mmulberry leaves and fortunately enough the mulberry trees can be easily grown without much water, thus making them suitable to be cultivated in the North-Eastern part of Thailand where both the landscape and the weather are on the dry side. Silkworms are larvae of a kind of butterflies whose cocoons contain substance that can be made into silk threads. Villagers in the North-East generally breed a domestic kind of silkworms whose eggs can be hatched in any season. The rearing of silkworms, in fact, is not much different from the nurturing of human babies, that is to say, the worms need the same intensive care and regular feeding in exactly the right amount. Care has to be taken not to overfeed or underfeed the worms and especially to keep their habitat clean. The worms must also not be exposed to too much heat or to too strong a light or else they may perish. The time lapse between hatching and cocooning is approximately 45 days. The cocoons will then be put into boiling water and the silk threads carefully extracted and coiled into skeins. The silk threads at this stage will be of a yellowish colour and need to go through a cleaning process in order to become white
The cleaning process as done by the local people since ancient times is to make use of substances such as a kind of local cabbage called Homm, banana roots or leaves or spines of banana fronds, young palm sprigs, the barks of the Kee-Lek tree or the leaves of a Pay-Gah tree (Oroxylum Indicum). Any one of those materials can be employed by slicing it into very thin pieces and leaving the pieces to dry in the sun before burning them to ashes. An alkali solution is then formed by stirring the ashes in water and leaving the water to settle with sediments sunk to the bottom. After that the silk threads are dipped into the solution until they are thoroughly soaked and then the whole thing is put to the boil for a suitable period. The threads are then taken up and washed once more in cool clean water. Finally, the threads are drawn up and left to dry once more in the sun. The process is finished at this point unless the threads still do not seem to be clean enough, then they will be put back into the alkali solution and the cleaning process repeated.
Once cleaned as required, the white threads are then wound around two poles whose distance equal the width of the cloth and the amount of threads used is also roughly according to what is desired to weave a piece of cloth. The weavers then tie up the silk threads at intervals with strings made of banana or hay fibre to form the required pattern. This is where the word "Mudmee" (tied threads) is derived. The tied threads are subsequently dyed one colour and the process is repeated for another colour until the full pattern which will appear on the cloth is achieved.
When the dyeing is finished, the tied strings are all removed and the threads are spun by means of a shuttle into a bobbin.
Schussikat
Schussfaden nach dem Abbinden
Abgebundener Schussfaden nach dem Färben
Aufgebundener Schussfaden nach dem Färben
Gewebe nach dem Eintrag des Schussfadens in eine einfarbige Kette In weaving, the shuttle is shifted skilfully between the warp threads and thus the pattern will automatically emerge. When spinning the threads into the bobbin, great care must be taken to arrange the threads into the appropriate positions or otherwise the woven cloth will bear an uneven pattern or great gaps may appear between lines which ought to be connected, sometimes resulting in the emergence of a pattem totally different from the one designed.
As for the warp threads which form the length of the cloth, they are generally dyed right after having been cleaned into the desired basic colour.
The people of the North-East in the olden days also made use of locally grown materials such as lac, indigo and other kinds of wild plants, for dyeing. Prior to the actual dyeing, they made it a rule to soak and boil the silk threads in the solution of a special kind of local creeper called "Kay", which is a thorny vine growing in abundance in wooded or hilly areas. The plant's rather long root would be dug up and chopped to about an arm's length as well as spliced into strips. The strips were dried in the sun and then put into boiling water and left to stew for about three days. The alkali liquid would then be filtered and boiled once more, ready for use in the predyeing process. Silk threads would then be dipped and rinsed in the boiling solution for a suitable period, then brought out and left to dry in the sun, thus becoming ready for the actual dyeing.
As can be clearly gathered, the local methods as detailed above are somewhat time-consuming and complicated. Thus the villagers of to-day have turned to make use of some modern chemical products to shorten and simplify the process of both cleaning and dyeing. Artificial alkali for cleaning and chemical dyes are readily available in the market and can be employed with ease as well as in much less time.
Abb.: Pflanzliche Färbemittel, Laos[Quelle der Abb.: Infinite designs : the art of silk / Lao Women's Union SIDA. -- Vientiane : Lao Women's Union, ©1995. -- S. 52]
However, since the costs of such modern products are rising day by day, every family must try to economize in every way to maintain their well-being. It is, therefore, more advisable to make use of natural substances available on the free-of-charge basis, thus cutting down on the spending and increasing one's income at the same time. This would be exactly in line with the wishes of Her Majesty the Queen who desires to promote supplementary occupations for people with consideration for available natural resources, local landscape and climate, popular needs, indigenous talents as well as traditional arts and culture of the area. Mudmee silk must be regarded as one of the prominent features forming the regional identity of the North-East and it is, therefore, a strong desire of Her Majesty to preserve this feature for posterity in the best possible manner."
[Mudmee silk / Office of Her Majesty's Private Secretary. -- Bangkok : Office of Her Majesty's Private Secretary, [um 1981]. -- S. 6 - 16]
Die wichtigsten Arbeitsschritte bei der Herstellung von mat mi sind also:
Traditionell kommt dazu noch das Herstellen der Farben aus Naturprodukten.
Die folgenden Texte geben einen sehr guten Einblick, wie regionale, historisch bedingte, ethnische Unterschiede zu sehr unterschiedlichen Textilkulturen in Thailand geführt haben.
Abb.: Karte von Thailand (Quelle: CIA)
Nordosttthailand (Isan)
"The textiles of the northeast of Thailand which is called Isan, can be divided into upper, central and lower area types.
- The upper and central Isan areas were once governed by the Lao of the Lan Xang Kingdom (1353 to 1707) and were populated by etnic Tai Lao from the Vientiane and Pakse areas.
- The lower area was formerly governed by the Khmer Empire (1050 to 1431) and populated by ethnic Khmer groups except for areas along the Mekong River that were inhabited by the Lao.
The ancient texiles of the upper and central Isan consisted of cotton ikat dyed indigo for everyday wear and silk weft ikat for ceremonial tubular skirts, usually with a vertical striped pattern, decorative hem border pieces for skirts made in silk and cotton twillweaves, and a waist band in red stripes decorated with supplementary weft. ... Looms were of the standing frame type and a great variety of natural dyes were prepared from the abundant forest. Today the forests are gone and the upper area (between Khon Kaen and Nong Khai) is producing cotton, while in the central area between Nakorn Rajasima and Khon Kaen, there are silk factories. The classic textiles of the Nakorn Rajasima area were probably twisted silks while in the villages, Lao style weft ikats for the phasin were mire popular.
To the east of Khon Kaen a group of ethnic Phutai emigrated from Laos and settled in the Kalasin, Mugdahan provinces and Chanuman districts Ubon Ratchathani province. Their ancient textiles were fine quality silk distinctive Phutai motifs and techniques. Weft ikat skirts were made with alternating plain colours giving striped effect featuring many colours on a dark brown or purple ground. Their shoulder cloths (Phuthai : pha phrae wa) were woven in discountinuous or continuous supplementary weft in many colours on a red ground Cotton blankets (Phutai : pha chong) had a silk supplementary warp design and were joined down the centre. Twill weaves were use in some cases. A special small square head cloth (Phatai : pha phrae mon) was made to cover the heads of novice monks during initiation cermonies. This was decoreated with discoutinuous supplementary weft incorporating ancient Tai motifs, in particular, the nak (stylised river dragon). Today some of there fabrics are still being woven following old models but colours and yarns are synthetic and arranged in repetitive designs.
In the lower part of Isan, the upland Khmer weave classic Khmer designs in silk weft. The ancient textiles of this area were long cloths (aprox. four meters by one meter) or be worn as chong kaben. Use of certain designs reflected rank and the use of trianular motifs at the ends of the cloth indicated court status. These textiles were also used for ordination cermonies particularily after the ruling of Rama V that the Khmer ikat chon kaben was no longer suitable for court wear. A twill weave silk shoulder cloth was woven for the women in white or black and checked sarongs made of twisted silks were woven for the men. A well-known design from the Surin area is called mi hol which is now made into tube-skirts similar to the Thai method of wearing a lower garment. The Khmer silk is distinctive from the Lao-Isan silk in the use of a three heddle twill weave for their weft ikats. Today Lao-Isan motifs are being woven for sale and blanket weight twill weave ikats in animal designs and designs depicting Angkor Wat are popular. The model for these designs is an ancient Khmer fabric called pha pha bot which were woven depiction the lives of the Buddha and scenes of the heavenly realms. The Lao Isan groups that live along the Mekong river in this part of Isan weave silk ikat tube skirts in Tai designs, particularily delicate weft ikat motifs in vertical stripes. In Ubon Ratchatani textiles incorporating gold and silver yarns were used for the pha sin of high ranking women. These were called sin long and ususally had a red striped waist band decorated with discontinuous supplementary weft motifs called hoa chok dao. During the period of Rama V fine brocades were woven in Persian styles for the court. The shoulder cloth of the Lao-Isan from the southerm area of Isan was made in silk continuous supplementary weft designs called pha biang lai khit. Sometimes two of these textiles were joined together to be worn as a shawl or as a headdress for men to wear during dances or sometimes worn as a belt or shoulder cloth."
[Textiles of the north-east / The External Cultural Relations Division Office of The National Culture Commission. -- Last updated : 11 Jul 1996. -- URL: http://www.mahidol.ac.th/Thailand/art/t_nortes.html. -- Zugriff am 2000-05-11]
Nordthailand
"Cotton was the main material in the north although silk were ordered from Nan Province for the northerm court. ... ´Many Tai Lue groups migrated into the north of Thailand from Sipsong Pan Na in China after 1782. The Tai Lue tubular skirt is recognisable by the emphasis on design and pattern in the central part of the textile with a wide oain black or indigo green piece. The skirt is sewn with two side seams. Tai Lue sub-troups all have similar design structures in their textiles but vary in technique from area to area. The Tai of Chiang Kham and Chiang Muan districts weave a small tapestry weave band into their tubular skirts. Their old textiles were made in silk, but since the closure of the Thai-Lao border in 1975, the same styles are made in synthetic yarns."
[Textiles of the north / The External Cultural Relations Division Office of The National Culture Commission. -- Last updated : 11 Jul 1996. -- URL: http://www.mahidol.ac.th/Thailand/art/t_north.html. -- Zugriff am 2000-05-11]
Zentralthailand
"In central Thailand in the provinces of Suphan Buri, Chainat, Uthai Thani and Phichit are a group called Lao Khrang whose ancient textiles were silk decorated with weft ikat. A woman's skirt and man's skirt and man's long cloth for wearing as a chong kaben had red as their dominant colour. The women's skirt included a cotton hem piece in yellow discontinuous supplementary weft leaving more than half of the cloth plain red at the lower hem. ...
Near the capitial, Bangkok, a group of Black Tai called Lao Song moved from the Dien Bien Phu area in Vietnam to Nakorm Pathom, Petchaburi and Suphanburi province in the late 18th century. Their women's skirts were make with red silk warp and indigo cotton weft with a white stripe at intervals worn in the vertical position. The traditional blouses included intriguing applique and embroidery in patches around the neck and under the arms. This tradition is being lost today."
[Textiles of upper central Thailand / The External Cultural Relations Division Office of The National Culture Commission. -- Last updated : 11 Jul 1996. -- URL: http://www.mahidol.ac.th/Thailand/art/t_centra.html. -- Zugriff am 2000-05-11]
Südthailand
"In southern Thailand textiles show influences from India and Malaysia, being of the Srivijaya and central Thai style with gold and silver brocade as the principal decorative technique. Brocade silks were made since the 18th century in Nakhon Si Thamarat province, using Malay looms and designs. In Ban Na Mun Si, Trang province, a two-tone twisted silk fabric was made for men's and women's chong kaben which became fashionable in the reign of Rama V (reg. 1868-1910). Also, a burial cloth was made incorporating supplementary weft. At Koh Yor, Songkhla province all purpose checks, stripes and simple supplementary wefts are still made today. In Phum Liang, Amphur Chaiya, Surathani province the muslim community is weaving brocades for modern use. Examples of antique southern textiles are very rare and can be seen in museums at Chaiya and Nakon Si Thammarat." [Textiles of southern Thailand / The External Cultural Relations Division Office of The National Culture Commission. -- Last updated : 11 Jul 1996. -- URL: http://www.mahidol.ac.th/Thailand/art/t_south.html. -- Zugriff am 2000-05-11]
Quelle für das Folgende ist:
Annual report 1998 / Sericulture for Rural Development Programme (SRDP). -- Kathmandu. -- URL: http://www.undp.org.np//pub/srdp/ar98/contents.htm. -- Zugriff am 2000-05-12]
Das SRDP wurde 1997 begonnen.
Abb.: Karte von Nepal mit Lage der "Clusters"
for provision of support at the field level have been selected on the basis of their track record of farmers, experience in sericulture, climate, interest, commitment and enthusiasm shown by the existing and prospective serifarmers."
Syangja-Palpa Cluster: 129,362
Sicateure 25 pcs Khurpi 30 pcs Booklets 400 pcs Pamphlets 1000 pcs Peas 17 kg Broad beans 10 kg
Die Anzahl der Beteiligten und den Frauenanteil zeigt folgende Übersicht:
| Cluster |
Group |
Male |
Female |
Total |
Female percentage |
| Ilam Chitwan-Dhading Kavre-Shivapuri Syangja-Palpa |
10 |
39 46 131 36 |
314 138 484 172 |
353 184 615 208 |
88.95 |
| Total |
52 |
252 | 1108 | 1360 |
81.47 |
Abb.: Das Dankopfer für die Götter der Seidengewinnung: aus Reisbrei werden
Kokons und aus Nudeln die 12 Jahrestiere nachgeahmt und dargebracht
"An einem glücklichen Tag" des 27. Jahrhunderts vor unserer eigenen Weltzeit ging Si ling schi, „große Frau" des Huang ti, mit ihren Damen spazieren. Als mythische Kaiserin Chinas war sie natürlich zart und schön gebaut. Diese ihre zarte Schönheit blieb aber leider noch in Bestienhäute gehüllt, höchstens ab und zu in einen Vogelbalg, denn sonderbare Zustände herrschten im barbarischen Leben des Frühvolkes. Das Li-Ki Rekord der Riten, spricht sich anschaulich hierüber aus:
„Früher hatten die Könige keine Häuser. Zur Winterszeit lebten sie in Höhlen, zur Sommerszeit in Nestern. Sie wussten noch nicht die verwandelnde Kraft des Feuers, sondern aßen Baumfrüchte und Pflanzen, (rohes) Fleisch der Vögel und Tiere, tranken das Blut und verschlangen auch Haare und Federn. Sie kannten noch nicht den Gebrauch von Flachs und Seide, gingen vielmehr mit Federn und Fellen bekleidet. Dann entstanden spätere Weise (Herrscher) und lehrten die Menschen die Vorteile des Feuers. Sie schmolzen Metall und formten Ton, um Türme mit Strukturen zu bauen, und Häuser mit Türen und Fenstern. Sie produzierten Saucen."
Also auch mit dem Essen war es unter Huang ti, einem dieser späteren Weisen, schon erheblich besser geworden, nur die Bekleidung lag noch recht im argen, bis seine Gemahlin Si ling schi an jenem „glücklichen Tag" spazierenging und zwischen Maulbeerzweigen hängende, sanft leuchtende Gebilde sah. Wohl dem Baum entwachsene! Doch nein, eines der Früchtchen dehnte plötzlich seine Eigestalt und ein mehlweißer Schmetterling, bräunlich gestreift. schwirrte hervor. Nicht Obst war es gewesen, vielmehr das abgelegte Kleid des Schwärmers.
Si ling schi, mit dem weiblichen Interesse für Bekleidungsdinge, betastete dieses verblüffende Gewand von zauberhafter Weiche. Mit geschickten Fingern gelang es der Kaiserin bald, den Anfang des Fadens zu erfühlen. Leuchtend, glatt und klar ließ er sich vom Kokon herunterspulen. In ihm hatte sie das herrlichste Naturgespinst auf Erden entdeckt. Kinderspiel war alles weitere.
Vielleicht hat sich dieses weltverwandelnde Ereignis ein Jahrhundert früher oder später und auch sonst anders zugetragen, denn beim Fabulieren am Rande des Mythos geht es nicht pedantisch zu; sicher aber ist, dass gerade diese Herrscherin die Seidenerzeugung erfand. Alte Texte melden dann von Huang ti, dem „gelben Herrn" :
„Er befahl seiner Gemahlin, auch das Volk die Zucht der Seidenraupe, die Behandlung der Fäden und Kokons zu lehren, damit es Kleider erhalte und man im Reich nicht mehr an Hautrissen und Frostbeulen litte."
Er selbst wird zu Schantung, im Tempel der „drei Majestäten", bereits mit gewobenem Kostüm dargestellt, im Gegensatz zu den Statuen zweier anderer Urkaiser: der eine trägt noch ein Kleid aus grünen Blättern, der andere eine Halskrause und ein kurzes Röckchen aus Gras. So symbolisieren die ehrwürdigen drei verschiedene Kulturstufen.
Abb.: Drei Seidengöttinnen mit Dienerinnen; im Vordergrund zwei Kokons sowie ein sich paarendes Seidenspinnerpaar[Quelle der Abb.: Timmermann, Irmgard: Die Seide Chinas : eine Kulturgeschichte am seidenen Faden. -- 2. Aufl. -- München : Diederichs, 1988 (©1986). -- ISBN 342400864X. -- S. 19, ohne Quellenangabe]
Si ling schi aber wurde später vergottet, sogar unter die Sterne versetzt. Vier große Lichter im Skorpion bilden ihre Quadriga am Himmel. Von nun an trägt sie den Titel Sien ts' an: Raupenförderin, Seidengenius, besonders aber heißt sie „Ahnfrau des Fadens", und ist damit in beste Gesellschaft gelangt, denn alle großen Göttinnen spinnen und weben. Immer wieder entlassen sie aus sich den Daseinsfaden, und immer wieder trennen sie ihn schließlich durch, wirken als „weiße Mütter" das Leben, als „schwarze Mütter" den Tod. Allein die Seidengöttin spinnt nur Gutes.
Darum hatte sie im Riesenreich der Mitte so viele Altäre, vor denen spätere Geschlechter der Ahnfrau des Fadens Dankbarkeit erwiesen. Weit über viertausend Jahre währte ununterbrochen ihre Verehrung, bis zum Ausbruch der modernen Republik, war sie doch ein Geschöpf echter Volkslegende, nicht kaiserlicher Verordnungssaga. Ihr ist jährlich das große Kokonfest geweiht, ihr Staatskult steht ebenbürtig neben dem des „göttlichen Ackerbauers". Wie er, Yang, das männliche, so verkörpert sie, Yin, das weibliche Prinzip. Es sind jene beiden Weltpulse, deren letzte Harmonie das vollendete Tao ergeben, im Kosmos und im Einzelwesen. Wie jeder Kaiser selbst sein Feld im heiligen Bezirk bestellt, damit er dessen Feldfrüchte als Opfer darbringen könne, so betreibt jede Kaiserin Seidenraupenzucht, um die kultischen Opfergewänder zu liefern. Das Herrscherhaus, zugleich die „Menschheitsfamilie", sorgt hierdurch für die Grundlagen des Daseins: Nahrung und Kleidung.
In zahllosen klassischen Schriften des Ritualministeriums sind die Zeremonien für die Seidengöttin niedergelegt. Von Dynastie zu Dynastie werden sie nur leicht verändert.
An einem „glückbringenden Tag" des dritten Frühlingsmonats (April) wählte der Kaiser, angetan mit dem weißseidenen Faltengewand und der Lederhaube, durch das Orakel der Schildkrötenschale, die best-adspektierten unter den Nebenfrauen des zweiten und dritten Ranges in den drei Palästen aus, um die Kaiserin zu geleiten. Mit dieser Schleppe aus Prinzessinnen und sehr edlen Damen begab sich dann die „große Frau" des Reiches an die Nordseite des Sees in den kaiserlichen Gärten zu Peking. Dort steht auf einem Eiland ein Hügel, von weißer Pagode gekrönt und dem Altar der Seidengöttin. Genau vierzig Fuß misst er im Geviert, ist vier Fuß hoch und umpflanzt von einem Maulbeerhain, darin ein Becken eisklaren Wassers eingelassen ist, um den Seidensamen zu waschen, nebst einer Kokonerie.
Nach dem :weitschweifigen Opfer sammelt die Kaiserin mit goldener, die gut-adspektierten Nebenfrauen jede mit silberner, die Prinzessinnen jede mit eiserner Sichel Maulbeerblätter, um die kaiserlichen Seidenwürmer zu füttern. Hierauf werden die Raupeneier auf ihren rauen Papierunterlagen durch das eiskalte Wasser gezogen und den acht „Raupenmüttern" zu weiterer Pflege anvertraut. Schließlich wickelt die Kaiserin persönlich noch einige Kokons ab und endet damit die Zeremonie,
Jegliches mit Raupenzucht Verbundene blieb nicht nur praktisch, vielmehr auch kultisch so bedeutsam, weil vieltausendjährige Erfahrung gelehrt hatte, dass, außer Jade, vor allem Seide edelster Art dem bestirnten Himmel als Geschenk genehm sei. Für den „Himmelssohn" ist aber der Himmel selber sein oberster Ahnherr, also wird beim Ahnenfest, dem wichtigsten des Jahres, besonders gewobene Seide, unter grandiosem Ritual, geopfert. Strenge Läuterungen gehen im „Fastenpalast" der Kulthandlung voraus, minutiöse Vorbereitungen werden in der „Halle des verdichteten Glückes" und anderen angenehm klingenden Räumen getroffen. Lange ehe der Kaiser eintrifft bei dem runden 0pferhügel, säubern Soldaten vor seiner Drachensänfte gründlich die Straßen vom Volk, damit nur Ruhe und Stille dem Erhabenen auf der Strecke zum „Altar der höchsten Reinheit" begegnen möge, kein weltliches Gewühl ihn besudle. Ist der heilige Weg vollendet, besteigt er seinen „Vrbeugungsplatz" ganz oben auf der zweiten Terrasse: die großen Bräuche können nun beginnen.
Sie währen stundenlang. Zu den wichtigsten gehört das Herbeibringen der Körbe mit Jade und der Körbe mit Seide. Eine Kantate, die diesen ganzen Akt begleitet, heißt: „Das Lied vom glanzreichen Frieden." Hierbei werden dem Himmel zwölf Stück azurblauer Seide geopfert, die Sonne empfängt ein rotes, der Mond ein weißes Stück; die Sterne und Planeten zusammen, außer sechs weißen Stücken, erhalten je ein blaues, ein gelbes, rotes, schwarzes, weil dies die Farben der fünf Hauptgegenden des Weltalls sind, sonach den fünf Elementen entsprechen (nach J. J. M. de Groot).
Wallensteins Hofastrologe Seni mit seinen berühmten Auftrittsworten: „Mein Freund, nichts ist bedeutungslos, das wichtigste jedoch sind Ort und Stunde", hätte sich in diesem Reich der Mitte wohlgefühlt, wo niemand, auch nur als Begleitperson, einem Kultakt beiwohnen durfte, dessen Horoskop disharmonierte mit dem „glücklichen Tag" der Begehung und wo es sogar ein eigenes „Zeitministerium" gab, dessen Kalender chronomantische Bedeutung zukam, denn nach chinesischer Philosophie ist es menschliche Notwendigkeit, in Übereinstimmung mit dem Kreislauf des Universums zu leben. Lebensführung, die dem Zeitcharakter nicht entspricht, wird zur Ursache von Weltkatastrophen.
Wie alles übrige, so unterstand auch die Raupenzucht kalendarischer Regelung durch das „Zeitministerium", allerdings unter Mithilfe der gesamten Volkserfahrung. In China waren Methoden der Seidengewinnung Nationalgut, nie Spezialwissenschaft. Jeder kleine Bauer besaß und besitzt neben seinem Feld und seinem Vieh, auf leicht wellig gemachtem Stückchen Land, noch etwa ein Dutzend Maulbeerbäume als Futterpflanzen. Die Seidenraupen selbst sind seit fünftausend Jahren seine Haustiere und fast Schoßtiere seines Weibes, das sie betreut bis zur Spinnreife, die Kokons persönlich abhaspelt, den Faden einfärbt und verwebt.
Landleute verstehen dort von Seide genau so viel wie Mandarine; Herzöge dichteten Seidenoden, Kaiserinnen woben Seidengewänder. In jeder Kulturgeschichte der Seide hat daher China den größten Raum einzunehmen, überall anders gehört ihre Herstellung zur Wirtschaftsgeschichte."
[Sir Galahad [= Eckstein-Diener, Berta Helene] <1874 - 1948>: Kleine Kulturgeschichte der Seide. -- In: Atlantis : Länder, Völker, Reisen. -- 9. Jahrgang, Heft 2 (Februar 1939). -- S, 91 - 94,]
"Noch eine andere Gruppe von Arthropoden spielt bei der kommerziellen Seidenherstellung eine gewisse Rolle: die Spinnen. Anders als Raupen spinnen diese die Seide nicht mit paarigen Speicheldrüsen, sondern mit mehreren verschiedenartigen Spinndrüsen in ihrem Hinterleib. Der Faden wird mit den Beinen oder dem ganzen Körper aus mehreren Spinnwarzen, deren Zahl familienspezifisch ist, herausgezogen, nachdem die Spinne ein Ende am Untergrund verankert hat. Nahezu alle Spinnen produzieren Seidenfäden, die für sie vielfach von großer Bedeutung sind. Die verschiedenen Spinnfäden erfüllen unterschiedliche Aufgaben. In einem Radnetz beispielsweise dienen klebrige Fäden dem Beutefang, während die Spinne ihr eigenes Netz auf glatten Fäden überquert, um sich darin nicht zu verfangen. Die Dicke der Seidenfäden von Spinnen schwankt je nach Art zwischen 0,0005 und 0,005 Millimeter; im Vergleich dazu ist ein blondes menschliches Haar mit 0,1 Millimeter Dicke der reinste Baumstamm. Manche Spinnenseidenfäden sind so elastisch und federnd, dass sie um mehr als 20 Prozent ihrer gesamten Länge gedehnt werden können. In früheren Zeiten wurde Spinnenseide für Fischnetze und Vogelfallen verwendet oder zu kleinen Taschen gewoben; Spinnweben fanden besonders als blutstillendes Verbandsmaterial Verwendung und dienten gedehnt und umgeschlagen sogar Malern als Leinwand. Heute hat Spinnenseide ihre größte wirtschaftliche Bedeutung bei der Herstellung von Fadenkreuzen für optische Instrumente wie Vermessungsgeräte, Entfernungsmesser, Mikroskope, Zielvorrichtungen für Bomben und Zielfernrohre von Gewehren.
Abb.: Schwarze Witwe, USA (©ArtToday™)Für Zielfernrohre ist der Spinnfaden von Jungspinnen der Art Latrodectus mactans, der Schwarzen Witwe, gefragt. Obwohl der Umgang mit dieser Spinne unter Umständen gefährlich ist -- der Biss eines ausgewachsen Exemplars kann durchaus tödlich sein --, ernten doch einige mutige Zeitgenossen den Spinnfaden von halbdomestizierten Exemplaren.
Da es schwierig ist, ausreichende Mengen Seide von potentiell tödlichen Spinnen zu sammeln, finanziert die US-Army Forschungen mit dem Ziel, Seide mit Hilfe der Gentechnik im Labor herzustellen. Gene, die die verschiedenen Seidenproteine codieren, wurden kloniert und in die Erbsubstanz von Bakterien eingeschleust, die daraufhin in Massen diese Proteine produzieren. Können die Seidenfasern erst einmal kostengünstig und schnell hergestellt werden, so sollen sie künftig unter anderem in kugelsicheren Westen, leichteren Helmen und Fallschirmseilen militärisch genutzt werden. Besonders für den letztgenannten Zweck ist Spinnenseide hervorragend geeignet, weil ihre Übergangstemperatur, also die Temperatur, bei der die Faser spröde wird, sehr niedrig ist. Da sie noch bei Temperaturen von minus 40 Grad Celsius elastisch und federnd bleibt, ist die Gefahr des Durchbrechens der Seidenstricke bei Frost nicht so groß wie bei den meisten anderen Fasern."
[Berenbaum, May R.: Blutsauger, Staatsgründer, Seidenfabrikanten : die zwiespältige Beziehung von Mensch und Insekt. -- Heidelberg [u.a.] : Spektrum, ©1997. -- ISBN 3827400783. -- Originaltitel: Bugs in the system (1995). -- S. 211f.. -- ]
Sericulum®. -- URL: http://sericulum.com/index.htm. -- ["Sericulum produces and sells educational products created from our silkworm farm and laboratory in Sonoma County, California."]. -- Zugriff am 2001-02-21
Berenbaum, May R.: Blutsauger, Staatsgründer, Seidenfabrikanten : die zwiespältige Beziehung von Mensch und Insekt. -- Heidelberg [u.a.] : Spektrum, ©1997. -- ISBN 3827400783. -- Originaltitel: Bugs in the system (1995). -- S. 198 - 212: Seide und Seidenraupen. --
Beyond tradition : Lao textiles revisited, the handwoven textiles of Carol Cassidy. -- Vientiane, Laos [u.a.] : Lao Textiles, ©1995. -- 63 S. : Ill.
Connors, Mary F.: Lao textiles and traditions. -- Kuala Lumpur [u.a.] : Oxford University Press, ©1996. -- 82 S. : Ill. -- (Images of Asia). -- ISBN 983-56-0001-5
Conway, Susan: Thai textiles. -- Bangkok : Asia Books, ©1992. -- 192 S. : Ill. -- ISBN 974-8206-99-8
Diner, Helen [= Eckstein-Diener, Berta Helene] <1874 - 1948>: Seide : eine kleine Kulturgeschichte. -- Leipzig : Goten-Verlag, ©1940. -- 259 S. : Ill.
Gillow, John ; Sentance, Bryan: Atlas der Textilien : ein illustrierter Führer durch die Welt der traditionellen Textilien. -- Bern [u.a.] : Haupt, ©1999. -- 240 S.: Ill. -- ISBN 3258060401. -- Originaltitel: World textiles (1999). -- [Sehr empfehlenswert!]. --
Humanity development library = HDL : for sustainable development and basic human needs. -- Version 2.0. -- Antwerp : Global Help Projects, 1998. -- 1 CD-ROM. -- [Enthält 800 Bücher, Reports und Broschüren sowie 430 Zeitschriften, insgesamt ca. 160.000 S. von Publikationen von mehr als100 Organisationen (z.B. FAO, gtz, Oxfam, Peace Corps, SKAT, UNESCO, UNICEF, WHO, World Bank); unentbehrlich!]. -- {Sie können diese CD-ROM für 30$ hier bestellen: http://www.oneworld.org/globalprojects/humcdrom/order.htm}. -- Online zugänglich: URL: http://media.payson.tulane.edu:8083/. -- Zugriff am 2001-02-21
Darin vor allem:
Infinite designs : the art of silk / Lao Women's Union SIDA. -- Vientiane : Lao Women's Union, ©1995. -- 108 S. : Ill. -- Text in Englisch und Laotisch; Paralleltitel in Laotisch
Kadolph, Sara J. ; Langford, Anna L.: Textiles. -- 8. ed. -- Uper Saddle River, NJ : Merrill, ©1998. -- ISBN 0134945921. -- S. 61 - 66: Silk
Mudmee silk / Office of Her Majesty's Private Secretary. -- Bangkok : Office of Her Majesty's Private Secretary, [um 1981]. -- 20 S. : Ill.
Nutztiere der Tropen und Subtropen / Hrsg. Siegfried Legel. -- Stuttgart [u.a.] : Hirzel.. -- Bd. 3: Pferde/Esel, Schweine, Elefanten, Geflügel, Bienen, Seidenspinner. -- ©1993. -- ISBN 3777604976
Peetathawatchai, Vimolphan: Esarn cloth design. -- Khon Khaen : University, [1978]. -- 55 S. : Ill. -- Text in Thai und Englisch; Paralleltitel in Thai
Seide und Baumwolle im Mandschu-China / mit einer Einleitung von Mario Bassagli und einem Text von Jean-Baptiste Du Halde. -- Genf : Weber, ©1980. -- (Iconographia). -- ISBN 3-295-00242-8
Silk reeling : cocoon silk study / chief editor: Huang Guo Rui. -- Entfield, NH : Science Publishers, ©1998. -- 461 S. : Ill. -- ISBN 157808038X. -- "Translated from Chinese". -- [Das Standardwerk!]
Textile Werkstoffe. -- 6. Aufl. -- Leipzig, DDR : Fachbuchverlag, ©1988. -- (Lehrbücher für den Facharbeiter für Textiltechnik). -- S. 61f.: Bombyxfaserstoffe
Timmermann, Irmgard: Die Seide Chinas : eine Kulturgeschichte am seidenen Faden. -- 2. Aufl. -- München : Diederichs, 1988 (©1986). -- 179 S. : Ill. -- ISBN 342400864X
Tortora, Phyllis G. ; Collier, Billie J.: Understanding textiles. -- 5. ed. -- Uper Saddle River, NJ : Merrill, ©1997. -- ISBN 0134392256. -- S. 114 - 122: Silk
Zu Kapitel 8.10: Bienen
