Musikinstrumente und Musikensemble (Materialien zur karnatischen Musik)

Überarbeitungen: 2017-03-31 [Ergänzungen] ; 2009-05-20 [Ergänzungen] ; 2009-05-12 [große Ergänzungen]

0. Übersicht

1. Einleitung und indische Systematik der Musikinstrumente

Außer den unten genannten Instrumenten werden von einzelnen Musikern die verschiedensten westlichen (auch elektronischen) oder nordindischen Instrumente verwendet.

2. तत = tata = Chordophone

2.1. वीणा = Vīṇā = Veena = வீணை = ವೀಣೆ = വീണ = వీణ

Abb.: Sarasvatī mit Vīṇā
[Bildquelle: Christina Kundu / Wikipedia. -- GNU FDLicense]

Während die nordindische Vīṇā eine Stabzither ist, ist die südindisceh Vīṇā eher eine Langhalslaute.

Durch den Einsatz von Kontaktmikrophonen (eingeführt von S. Balachander) sind neuartige Toneffekte möglich geworden, wie sehr lang nachklingende Töne.

Der Affengott Hanumān und der Dämonenfürst Rāvaṇa gelten als Viṇā-Virtuosen.

Abb.: Veena Dhanammal (Vīṇā Dhanammāḷ) (1868 - 1938) mit Vīṇā
[Bildquelle: Wikipedia. Public domain]

Vīṇā Dhanammāl hat einen großen Einfluss auf Spieltechnik und Stil vieler Vīṇā-Spieler.

2.2. கோடடு வாத்தியம் / चित्रवीणा = Gōṭṭuvādyam / Citravīṇā

Gōṭṭuvādyam ist eine bundlose Vīṇā, d.h. die Saiten werden nicht durch Bünde verkleinert, sondern allein durch den Druck mit einem Stab (N. Ravikiran benutzt einen aus Teflon).

Vgl. z.B. folgendes Album, gespielt von B.V. Balasai und A. Durgaprasad, auf Spotify:

2.3. Sāraṅgī = सारंगी

2.4. Violine = ಪಿಟೀಲು = வயலின் / பிடில் = వయొలిన్ = വയലിന്‍

Abb.: Konzert karnatischer Musik: Gesang (Dr.M. Balamuralikrishna), Violine (Vittal Ramamurthy), Mṛdaṅga (Thiruvarur Sri Vaidyanadhan)
[Bildquelle: balaji shankar. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/balaji_shankar/1431714984/. -- Zugriff am 2009-04-14. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, keine kommerzielle Nutzung)]

Die Violine wurde im 19. Jhdt. vor allem durch den Maratha-Herrscher von Tañjavūr (தஞ்சாவூர்), Rāja Serfoji II (सर्फोजी, சரபோஜி) (regierte 1798 - 1832) eingeführt: in seinem Palastorchester wirkte ein britischer Violinist, Jon Sylvester. Da die Violine keine Bünde hat und auch sonst zu differenziertestem Ausdruck gebracht werden kann, ist sie ideal geeignet für karnatische Musik. Heute ist sie das wichtigste Melodieinstrument in karnatischen Musikensembles und hat auch als Soloinstrument große Bedeutung.

2.5. तम्पूरा = Tampūrā

Tampūrā ist das wichtigste Instrument für den in der karnatischen Musik obligaten Bordun, d.h. die Dauertöne, die die Melodie tragen.

Aus Kostengründen (um einen Musiker einzusparen) wird heute die Tampūrā oft durch eine elektronische Tampūrā, elektronische Tongeneratoren, Tonband oder Śrutipeṭṭi (Śruti box) ersetzt.

2.6. Mandoline = ಮ್ಯಾಂಡೊಲಿನ್

Abb.: Mandolin Upalappu Shrinivas, München, 2001
[Bildquelle: Sven Petersen / Wikipedia. Gemeinfrei]

Neuerdings fand durch Mandolin Upalappu Shrinivas (ఉప్పలపు శ్రీనివాస్), (1969 - ) auch die Mandoline, ein mit einem Plektron gespieltes lautenartiges Zupfinstrument, Eingang in die karnatische Musik.

2.7. Ekanāda / Ektār

2.8. Kinnarī

3. अवनद्ध = avanaddha = Membranophone

3.1. मृदङ्ग = Mṛdaṅga =மிருதங்கம் = ಮೃದಂಗ = മൃദംഗം = మృదంగం

3.2. தவிள் = Tavil = തവില്‍

3.3. Kañjīrā = ഗഞ്ചിറ

Abb.: Kañjīrā
[Bildquelle: brian@silverbushmusic.com / Wikipedia. -- GNU FDLicense]

Die meisten Mṛdaṅga-Spieler spielen auch Kañjīrā. Es gibt aber auch einige Kañjīrā-Spezialisten.

4. घन = ghana = Idiophone

Zu den Idiophonen gehören auch die verschiedenen Glocken, Glöckchen und Schellen, z.B. Salangai (சலங்கை = calaṅkai), die auf Schnüren aufgezogenen oder auf Bänder genähten Schellen an den Fußknöcheln von Tänzerinnen und Tänzern.

Ein weiteres wichtiges Idiophon sind die Hände: Händeklatschen spielt teilweise eine bedeutende Rolle als Rhythmusinstrument.

4.1. Fußboden

Ein wichtiges Idiophon der karnatischen Musik ist der Fußboden. Durch gekonntes Stampfen mit den Füssen verwandeln gute Tänzerinnen den Fußboden in ein faszinierendes Musikinstrument.

4.2. நட்டுவாங்கம் = Nattuvāngam

Ein Paar kleiner Zimbeln, mit dem der Nattuvānar, idealerweise der Guru der Tänzerin oder des Tänzers, Musiker und Tänzer "dirigiert".

4.3. தட்டுபபலகை + தட்டுகலி= Taṭṭuppalakai mit Taṭṭukali

Holzstock (taṭṭupalakai) und Holzblock (taṭṭukali), mit denen Tanzfiguren und Rhythmus vor allem beim Unterricht gezeigt werden.

4.4. தாளம் = Tāḷam / ஜால்ரா = Jālrā

Tāḷam sind Handbecken als Rhythmusinstrument, die in der karnatischen Musik vom Tanzmeister (naṭṭuvanar) oder vom Sänger gespielt werden. Eine größere Version des Talam wird in der Tempelmusik benutzt.

Jālrā entspricht dem Tāḷam, ist aber aus dünnerem Metall hergestellt und wird von Bhajana-Gruppen und musizierenden Wanderasketen verwendet.

4.5. Ciplā, Kurtar, Chittika

Zwei Holzstäbe mit Metallgriff, auf denen kleine Scheibchen aus Glockenbronce sind. Wird vor allem von musizierenden Wanderasketen verwendet bei ihren Harikathā`s - viṣṇuitischen Erzählgesängen.

4.6. கடம் = ಘಟ = Ghaṭam

[Bildquelle: Thurston, Edgar <1855 - 1935> ; Rangachari, K.: Castes and tribes of southern India. -- Madras : Govt. Press, 1909. -- 7 Bde. : ill. ; 24 cm. -- Bd. 6. -- Nach S. 232.]

4.7. जलतरंग = Jalataraṅga = జలతరంగం

Jalataraṅga besteht aus mit Wasser gefüllten Porzellanschüsseln, die mit leichten Stöckchen angeschlagen werden. Durch die Wassermenge können die Töne gestimmt werden.

4.8. Mōrsing (Murcing)

5. सुषिर = suṣira = Aerophone

Abb.: (von oben nach unten:) Pillagovi (Murali), Mukhavīṇā, Śruti, Nāgasvara, Algoa
[Bildquelle: C.R. Day, a.a.O., Plate XV]

Zu den Aerophonen gehört auch Śaṅkha, das Schneckenhorn, ein rechtsdrehendes (= linksgewundenes) Exemplar von Turbinella pyrum (= T. rapa) ("Hinduglocke"), das nur religiös-funktional verwendet wird.

5.1. वेणु = Veṇu / pullāṅkulal = புல்லாங்குழல்

Abb.: pullāṅkulal = புல்லாங்குழல்
[Bildquelle ta-Wikipedia]

Die heutige Spieltechnik geht vor allem auf T.R. Mahalingam ("Mali") (gestorben 1985) zurück, der die traditionelle Spieltechnik revolutionierte.

5.2. Nādasvaram / Nāgasvaram = நாதசுவரம் = నాదస్వరం

Abb.: Nādasvaram / Nāgasvaram = நாதசுவரம்
[Bildquelle: ta-Wikipedia]

Im Unterschied zu westlichen Oboe-Spielern, die das Doppelblatt zwischen den Lippen halten, schwingt das ganze Doppelblatt indischer Oboen frei in der Mundhöhle des Spielers.

Abb.: Nāgasvaram und Tavil
[Bildquelle: Badagnani / Wikipedia. -- GNU FDLicense]

5.3. Klarinette = கிளாரினெட்

Die Klarinette wurde in die karnatische Musik vo Mahādeva Naṭṭuvananar ca. 1860 eingeführt. Heute wird die Klarinette in der karnatischen Musik z.B. von A.K.C. Natarajan (1930/31 - ) gepflegt.

5.4. Saxophon = საქსოფონი

Kadri Gopalnath (ಕದ್ರಿ ಗೋಪಾಲನಾಥ) (1950 - ) aus Karnataka ist Pionier im Einsatz des Saxophons in karnatischer Musik.

Das Saxophon ist ein Rohrblattinstrument und zählt deswegen zu den Holzblasinstrumenten.

5.5. Śruti-upāṅga = Bhajana-śruti

5.6. Harmonium und Śrutipeṭṭi (Śruti box)

Im 19. Jahrhundert führten christliche Missionare das tragbare Harmonium in Indien ein. In nordindischer Hindustāni Musik ist das Harmonium wohl das beliebteste Begleitinstrument. In Südindien ist es bei Bhaja-singenden Gruppen sehr beliebt. Das Harmonium war dabei, auch in die karnatische Kunstmusik Eingang zu finden, als in den 1930er Jahren eine intensive Kampagne gegen die Verwendung des Harmonium in der karnatischen Kunstmusik begann. Seither ist das Harmonium aus den südindischen Konzertsälen verbannt.

5.7. Kombu, Tuturi, Buruga

Abb.: (von oben nach unten:) Tuturi, Nafari, Kombu, Kurna
[Bildquelle: C.R. Day, a.a.O., Plate XVII]

6. Elektrophone

Abb.: Anzeige in: Sruti : India's premier music and dance magazine. -- Chennai. -- Issue 231 (December 2003). -- S. 4.

Elektronisch verstärkte und modifizierte Instrumente finden zunehmend auch in karnatischer Musik Verwendung, so z.B.

Vor allem aber elektronische Instrumente für die Bordun-Begleitung: electronic Tampūrā.

Siehe z.B. die elektronischen Produkte von Radel™ "the only ISO 9001:2000 certified, award-winning company for Electronic Indian musical Instruments in the world": http://www.radelindia.com/. -- Zugriff am 2009-05-20.

6.1. Electronic Tampūrā

Automatische Tampūrā's vor der Elektronik wurden mechanisch oder elektromechanisch angetrieben, u.a.:

7. Menschliche Stimme

Zur Stimmkultur Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts macht C. R. Day folgende Beobachtungen:

Eine entscheidende Wende in der Stimmkultur kam durch den universellen Einsatz von Mikrophonen.

8. वृन्द = vṛnda = Musikensemble

गातृवादकसंघातो वृन्दमित्यभिधीयते ।

"Eine enge Gruppe von Sängern und Instrumentalisten nennt man Ensemle (vṛnda)."

Śārṅgadeva <13. Jhdt.>: Saṅgītaratnākara II.3.203ab.

Demgemäß unterscheidet man:

गायकवृन्द = gāyakavṛnda: Gesangsensemble
वाद्यवृन्द = vādyavṛnda: Instrumentalenemble
नृत्यवृन्द = nṛtyavṛnda: Tanzensemble

R. C. Day gibt folgende Beobachtungen zur Praxis am Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts wieder:

"Musical entertainments among the higher classes are very popular and much in vogue. Upon such occasions a company of musicians are hired for the evening. The Vina is the favourite instrument, and is generally accompanied by either a Mathala or Tabla, or else by a kind of earthen pot called Gatha, much like the ordinary "chatty," which, in the hands of a skilful performer, is beaten with wonderful dexterity. Sometimes, but rarely, two vinas of different sizes are employed. In this case, if the players are skilful, the effect is very pleasing, especially in the performance of an Alāpa, a kind of rhapsody or fantasia impromptu, in any rāga ; each instrument keeps its part distinct, and the theme is cleverly imitated and tossed about from one to the other much as is done in a modern orchestra. Such imitation is, however, purely at the fancy of the performers, and not contrapuntal imitation as understood in Europe.
Throughout Southern India the native drama is exceedingly popular ; the actors are generally well educated and of a high caste, and a good company always attracts full houses. Music is largely employed upon the stage, and there is a kind of orchestra attached to every native theatre. The songs sung at performances of the kind do not, as a rule, differ much from the ordinary music of the country, and of late years there has been a tendency to imitate foreign music, such as Arabian or Persian, and the English, Scotch, or other airs played by military bands at all large stations. These naturally find their way from the theatre into private houses—boys learn them and sing them in the street—and so their influence gradually extends and makes itself felt upon Indian music [p. 93] in general. The old melody types, or rāgas, are being less jealously adhered to, and the better educated classes of Hindus are beginning to see that music is not necessarily confined to one or two particular systems, but that, like nearly everything else, it is capable of improvement and further development.

A marked change for the better in the manner of singing is evident. This, indeed, could not fail to be the case when it is remembered that if a voice is intended to be heard by a large audience in a theatre or other building of the kind it must be thrown out to the full extent of its volume, instead of being contorted and its sweetness spoilt by the continued small inflections of tone and unnatural falsetto notes so much practised by native singers of the ordinary class.

The native orchestra is usually made up of the following instruments, or of a somewhat similar combination :—

Sārangi (string) 2

Tamburi (string) 1

Mukavina (native oboe) 1

Mathala or Tabla (drums) 1

Śruti (drone) 1

The use of the Sārangi in Southern India—except in conjunction with Nautches—is rapidly being discontinued, and an English fiddle tuned as a vina or sārangi is often substituted for it. Farther North the instrument appears likely to hold its place for a long time to come. A clarinet is sometimes preferred to the Mukavina.

In musical performances cymbals and bells of different kinds are used, according to taste, and the occasional use of a harmonicon of little bells or plates of metal (Septaghantika), or of porcelain cups or glasses (Jalatharāngini), is much admired.

It is a common custom for the members of particular castes, sects, &c., to meet together at stated intervals for the purpose of worship, either in each other's houses or in temples. On these occasions music forms a prominent feature, and consists of hymns of different kinds, accompanied by a variety of instruments. Music of this nature is called Bhazana [bhajana], and its use is almost universal.

Among the higher castes great trouble and expense is incurred in procuring good performers for this purpose. The songs are generally pretty and well sung to the accompaniment of the vina or sitar and tamburi, with, perhaps, a small drum to mark the rhythm. The Bhazana of the common people is a great contrast to this, and in their assemblies melody is often sacrificed to mere noise. Each man, in order to show his devotion, sings in turn, frequently with no regard for time or tune, whilst the others beat drums or blow a kind of whistle called Sillu, with other instruments, just as it pleases them, and, as can be imagined, the effect of this is discordant in the extreme. [p. 94]

The instruments commonly employed in Bhazana [bhajana] consist of one of the following combinations—

Tamburi 1

Sārangi or Fiddle 2

Mathala 1

Tamburi 1

Sārangi 1

Mathala 1

Śruti 1

Sitar 1

Tabla 1 pair

Sitar 1

Tāla (cymbals) 1

Tabla 1 pair

Or, if the means of the worshippers be very limited, a single tambouri, with, perhaps, one pair of little cymbals and a common drum, or tabor such as Khanjeri, is found.

The music performed for Bhazana usually consists of kirthanas, gitas, and kruthis [kṛtis].

In temples, chiefly those of Lingayet or other Saivite sects, there is a peculiar kind of music in use called Kāradisamela. It is so-called because a large conical kettle-drum called by that name is the principal instrument mployed in it. The Karadisamela carries with it a special rhythm of its own ; for lively airs—

for those of a mournful nature—

A system of music called Sopānam is found in Malabar, where it is confined to temple services. In every temple of any importance in Malabar and Travancore it is usual to have both instrumental and vocal music at the steps leading to the principal shrine during the performance of certain services. The word sopānam, in its literal sense, means " steps," and hence gives its name to this particular kind of music. The Sopānam system varies in many respects from both the Karnatik and Hindustani ; a detailed description of it would, however, be unnecessary, since it is much akin to the Karnatik system and differs only in technical points, which would be uninteresting to the reader.

The use of the gong and bell in temples is universal. Colonel Meadows Taylor, in speaking of this, remarks that the gong is not used as an accompaniment to any but the loud crashing and generally dissonant music of the temple ceremonies. No ceremony of sacrifice or oblation is ever performed without a preliminary tinkling of the bell, repeated at certain intervals according to the ritual. [S. 95] [...]

The Dasaris, a mendicant class of temple servers of Vaisnavite persuasion, usuallv employ a little side-drum, with one head only, called Dinni, not unlike the modern Egyptian " Tabl Shāmī"; other mendicants, called Andis, outcasts from Saivite sects, play upon a small gong called Semakkalam, which they beat with a stick. Both Dasaris and Andis often carry a horn as well, and support themselves by singing doleful ballads or hymns at street corners and by begging. Work of any sort they decline. The ordinary native band of discordant wind instruments, drums, and cymbals found throughout Southern India is called Mela. The players in these bands are mostly taken from a caste of Telegu-speaking barbers called " Mangala-vāndlu," who make this their special profession and provide the music, so-called, commonly heard at temple ceremonies, weddings, festal gatherings, and all street "tamāshas." The composition of these bands varies greatly, the number of instruments in some cases being as many as thirty and in others perhaps only three or four ; generally one or two nāgasāras—a śruti or drone—a drum such as the dhol—and a pair of cymbals (called Jhanj), about ten inches or a foot in diameter, are found. Sometimes a mela, consisting of a single mukavina, a flute, a flageolet, a drone, and a small side-drum called Dhanki is employed.

The effect of a mela can hardly be called pleasing, unless to those whose chief delight is discordant noise. The air, such as it is, is generally drowned by the clanging of cymbals and the incessant drumming, which, added to the prolonged and shrill drone of the śrutis, produce an effect considerably imposing. But, as Captain Willard pithily enough remarks, it is heard to advantage "from a distance."

A peculiar institution of Indian music is known as the Nahabet [or Nōbut], and is so called from that being: the name of the largest drum associated with it. There are certain persons—Hindu or Mahomedan noblemen—who are privileged to have attached to their service bands of professional musicians, who perform at certain stated hours of the day or night. This privilege is sometimes extended to certain temples and shrines of saints, or to spiritual princes—gurus or swamies. To these [p. 96] bands the name of Nahabet is given, and they are usually placed in balconies over the gateways of cities or palaces, or in other elevated places elsewhere, and these places are known as the Nahabet Khaneh. The music played is, of course, traditional, but it possesses a distinct character of its own that is entirely different to any other music heard in India, and the effect, especially among mountains or in the hill fortresses, such as are found in Central India or Rajputana, is very striking. Usuallv care is taken to retain the services of the best performers for the Nahabet, and when heard from a little distance upon a still Indian night, and the sound is subdued, there is a good deal of wild beauty about it that possesses a charm peculiarly its own.

[...]

In the present day the large number of different instruments formerly found in the Nahabet Khanehs of fortresses and palaces do not exist, and the effect of the modern Nahabet is therefore less imposing. There are, however, to be found in most Nahabet Khanehs one pair of large Nahabets, a couple of pairs of smaller kettledrums (Nakkera) and possibly other drums with a Kurna, one or two Tuturi, a pair or two of cymbals, one or two Nāgasāras and their accompanying drones, with perhaps a couple of Nuy or flutes-a-bec. [p. 97]

The Kurna is not always found, for only nobles of the highest rank are considered able to use it ; and by Brahmins it is still held to be the most ancient and sacred instrument of music in existence, and they consequently give it a prominent place in their temple ritual.

Nautch music is termed Taffa or Keylika and is performed exclusively by a caste of Nautch people called in Southern India Melakāra-jāti. This is a composite class of dancing women and male musicians, distinguished by a marked social division from the higher orders of the musical profession. The dancing men and women of the Melakāra caste, who together form a complete chorus, constitute what is called a Chinnamela (or smaller music), in distinction to the Peryamela (big music), which is a band of male musicians who play upon the Nāgasāra with drums and accompaniments differing from those of the dancers.' The Peryamela, r Pathamelam as it is also called, is the ordinary native band formed by the Mangalavāndlu caste and already described.

At Nautches the usual arrangement of instruments is as follows :

Sārangis, or English fiddles tuned in the native manner 2

Mridang or Tabla (drum) 1

Śruti-upanga (drone) 1

Tāla or jālra (cymbals) 1

[...] [p. 98]

A Nautch usually commences with the singing of a Mangala or "song of hail" (generally in the Rāga Nāta), the words of which are intended to do honour to the principal personages present. When this is concluded, the leader or conductor of the troupe, who invariably plays the tāla or jālra, hums or sings a kind of accompaniment, called Konnagolu, to this one of the girls dances, keeping time with the soft tinkling of the bells tied round her ankles. During this the other instruments are independent of the leader and are played softly and without time in any rāga that may be chosen, the chorus, if any, being much subdued. And when the dance is finished, songs—such as javadis [jāvaḷi] or pathams [padam]—follow, one voice singing the solo and the whole of the voices taking up at intervals a soft refrain. Dances or gestures, in character with the words of the song, are made by the girls performing in front of the musicians.

Sometimes Sanskrit slokes, called "Astapathi," [aṣṭapadī] are sung by one voice, the instruments playing a kind of soft, dreamy accompaniment without any well defined time, either with or alternately with the voice.

The performance is brought to a close by the singing of a Mangala, in either the rāgas Surati or Saurāshtra."

Day, C. R. (Charles Russell) <1860-1900>: The music and musical instruments of southern India and the Deccan. -- London & New York : Novello, 1891. -- xvi, 173 S. : Ill. ; 25cm. -- S. 92 - 98.

Der Tamil-Ausdruck für Musikensemle ist மேளம் = mēḷam. Man unterscheidet u.a.:

Abb.: പഞ്ചവാദ്യം = Pañcavādyam, Kerala
[Bildquelle: Kjrajesh / Wikipedia. GNU FDLicense]

पञ्चवाद्यम् = പഞ്ചവാദ്യം = Pañcavādyam sind Musikensemble an den Tempeln Keralas. Sie umfassen 20 und mehr Spieler und die fünf (pañca) Instrumente (vādya):

Pañcavādyam-Trommler sind Angehörige der Mārār-Kaste (മാരാര്‍).

Neben den genannten Musikensembles gibt es auch uniformierte Musikkapellen mit westlichen Instrumenten nach dem Muster westlicher Militärkapellen, die bei Hochzeitsprozessionen und anderen Prozessionen mit Vorliebe Filmmusik spielen.

Materialien zur karnatischen Musik

7. Musikinstrumente und Musikensemble