नामलिङ्गानुशासनम्

2. Dvitīyaṃ kāṇḍam

9. siṃhādivargaḥ

(Über Tiere)

10. Vers 26b - 29
(Insekten)

Übersetzt von Alois Payer

Zitierweise | cite as: Amarasiṃha <6./8. Jhdt. n. Chr.>: Nāmaliṅgānuśāsana (Amarakośa) / übersetzt von Alois Payer <1944 - >. -- 2. Dvitīyaṃ kāṇḍam. -- 10. siṃhādivargaḥ.  -- 10. Vers 26b - 29 (Insekten). -- Fassung vom 2011-01-20. --  URL: http://www.payer.de/amarakosa2/amara209j.htm                    

Erstmals hier publiziert: 2011-01-20

Überarbeitungen:

©opyright: Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, keine kommerzielle Nutzung, share alike)

Dieser Text ist Teil der Abteilung Sanskrit von Tüpfli's Global Village Library

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"Those who have never considered the subject are little aware how much the appearance and habit of a plant become altered by the influence of its position. It requires much observation to speak authoritatively on the distinction in point of stature between many trees and shrubs. Shrubs in the low country, small and stunted in growth, become handsome and goodly trees on higher lands, and to an inexperienced eye they appear to be different plants. The Jatropha curcas grows to a tree some 15 or 20 feet on the Neilgherries, while the Datura alba is three or four times the size in>n the hills that it is on the plains. It is therefore with much diffidence that I have occasionally presumed to insert the height of a tree or shrub. The same remark may be applied to flowers and the flowering seasons, especially the latter. I have seen the Lagerstroemia Reginae, whose proper time of flowering is March and April, previous to the commencement of the rains, in blossom more or less all the year in gardens in Travancore. I have endeavoured to give the real or natural flowering seasons, in contradistinction to the chance ones, but, I am afraid, with little success; and it should be recollected that to aim at precision in such a part of the description of plants is almost hopeless, without that prolonged study of their local habits for which a lifetime would scarcely suffice." [Quelle: Drury, Heber <1819 - 1872>: The useful plants of India : with notices of their chief value in commerce, medicine, and the arts. -- 2d ed. with additions and corrections. London : Allen, 1873. -- xvi, 512 p. ; 22 cm. -- S. VIII f.]

2. dvitīyaṃ kāṇḍam - Zweiter Teil

2.9. siṃhādivargaḥ - Abschnitt über Löwen und andere Tiere

Abb.: Asiatische Tierwelt
[Bildquelle: Brockhaus' Kleines Konversationslexikon, 1906]

Übersicht

• Zur Einführung: Insects and man / by H. (Harold) Maxwell-Lefroy, 1909
• 2.9.65. Blattaria - Schaben - Cockroaches
• 2.9.66. Blauschwarze Fliegen
• 2.9.67. Apidae - Bienen - Bees
• 2.9.68. Eine kleine Bienenart, vermutlich Apis florea Fabricius 1787 - Zwerg-Honigbiene - Dwarf Honey Bee
• 2.9.69. Bremsen - Gadflies  (Stechmücken?)
• 2.9.70. Kleine Bremsen (Stechmücken?)
• 2.9.71. Wespen - Wasps
• 2.9.72. Gryllidae - Grillen - Crickets
• 2.9.73. Heuschrecken - Grasshopers
• 2.9.74. Lampyridae - Glühwürmchen - Fireflies
• 2.9.75. Apidae - Bienen - Bees

Zur Einführung: Insects and man / by H. (Harold) Maxwell-Lefroy, 1909

Abb.: Vielfalt der Insekten
[Bildquelle: Bugboy52.40 / Wikipedia. -- GNU FDLicense]

"Insects and Man.—With the exception of domestic animals there is no single group of animal life which enters more into the daily life of man than insects. [...] Let any house-keeper in India think for a moment of her store-room and the precautions she takes. Sugar must be isolated or ants will carry it off ; flour must be in a tightly-closed tin, or moth, weevil or beetle gets in ; no sweet thing is safe, once opened, unless isolated on water, dried fruits of every kind are spoilt by beetles, grain is eaten by weevils ; pulse of all kinds harbours moths or beetles ; even tobacco and dried drugs are not exempt. Daily and hourly mankind is fighting the ravages of the insect world, which seeks to take from him his last ultimate asset, his stock of food. Think of the countless sealed mud grain-stores there are in India, many in every village, and all because of the insect life around us. Let us take another aspect, that of disease ; malaria, enteric, typhoid, yellow fever, plague, filariasis and elephantiasis, sleeping sickness (? kala azar, black water fever), each and every one of these means a yearly total of deaths, premature and unnecessary, caused by the agency of insects. [...]  This may be equalled by that part played by insects in inducing disease among our domestic animals. [...] Think again of the agriculturist and his foes ; of the locusts which lay waste a district, of the bollworm that takes a tenth of the cotton-crop in India, or perhaps three-quarters of it in an occasional year ; of the moth-borer that kills one cane-shoot in three ; of the rice hispa that causes famine or the rice grasshopper that destroys the paddy over a whole division [...] What takes toll of every crop grown in this country to a greater or lesser extent ? Insects in every case insects ; and insects are a factor to be taken into account in agriculture all the world over. Think of one's daily life ! There are cockroaches that smell, fish insects that eat our papers, ants that carry off our sugar, "gundies," and other smelly things that flavour our food when they fall in, wasps and hornets that sting, mosquitoes that bite and annoy, to say nothing of sand-flies, that no mosquito net keeps out, and the bug and flea which continually pester us, the mud wasps that build nests in our books and close our locks ; furniture beetles that wear out our chairs, the cheroot beetles that spoil our cigars, the book beetle that tunnels in our books, the moth that destroys our clothes. Daily and hourly we come in direct contact with insect life. Read the doleful comments of the Calcutta resident in August, asking why science cannot check the insects that come to his lamp during dinner and make his life a burden ; or the sad tale of the District Officer who had to vacate his bungalow because the wasps wanted it and had been accustomed to have it ; or again the tale of the telegraph stores which were hurriedly wanted in large quantities, but could not be touched because hornets had built nests among them and actively resented any interference ; or that of the greatcoats ready to be distributed to the army, each being found with neat little holes eaten out by beetles. Impartial judgment and a dispassionate consideration of facts will show that insects have fully exploited man, and, that though man may think that he is dominant, he really is not, and that not the least among his functions is that of providing food and occupation for insects. [...] But, were insects given to that kind of mentality and speculation (as they may be), it would be interesting to get their views on man and his place in their nature. Assuredly it would not agree with ours ; equally it may be, that, from any standpoint, whether material, mental, moral or spiritual, man is on no higher a level than insects ; and it might be better to classify our activities as they affected insects than to refer each insect to its "use" to us. A rough classification of the ways in which insects affect man may be attempted, chiefly with a view to securing clearness of idea : Cause damage to growing plants directly. Cause damage to growing plants indirectly. Cause damage to stored products. Cause damage to domestic animals directly. Cause damage to domestic animals indirectly. Personally distasteful. Transmit disease to man. Assist agriculture directly. Assist agriculture indirectly. Yield useful products. [...] Of those personally distasteful, it is hard to speak. The mosquito that bites and sings, the cockroach that flies around before rain, the eyefly that thinks its proper sphere is man's visual organ, the crawling caterpillar that falls from on high, each (and many more) is distasteful in some degree to different individuals. The dweller in Bengal is harried by hordes of perfectly amiable and delightful insects which join him when the lamps are lit. As I write, they swarm around me, in great variety, in pleasing profusion, adding, by their mere number and senseless gyrations, to the irritation caused by climate, weariness, liver, etc. In some places 'gundies' (Cydninae) are pre-eminent, in other places green fly (Jassids) ; the geranium (Cydnus) is familiar to some, while our curse here is varied but largely composed of beetles (Scaritids chiefly). Whatever they are, their profusion, their ubiquitousness, their buzzings and their singed or oily corpses cause an annoyance only to be appreciated by experience, and which forms not the least of the ills we bear. [...] So far all is ill and were we to consider this only, then insects would have but a sinister significance. There is another side and still taking our anthropocentric view, we may consider the classes of insects on which man's welfare depends. A very large class of insects promote tillage, by burrowing and excavating in the soil ; they sweeten the soil and render the growth of plants possible. This is especially the case in tropical India, where worms are not so abundant ; it is impossible to bring accurate proof of this. But it is easy to observe the countless borings of insects in undisturbed soil, especially under trees and where there has been no cultivation. In addition to this, insects do much directly to enrich the soil by carrying down dung, by burying carcasses, by causing the decay of fallen vegetable matter. It requires but little observation and thought to see how large a part insects play in this, and how greatly they assist in keeping the earth sweet and wholesome, and in rapidly restoring to the soil available food ; with the bacteria, the fungi and similar organisms, they play a great part in the constant cycle of matter through the soil to some form of life and back to the soil again. In these ways insects assist agriculture directly. Another great function they exercise is in pollination ; [...] Indirectly insects are also a benefit as they check themselves and also help to keep down the undue prominence of weeds and particular forms of plant life. It is perhaps a paradox to ascribe as a virtue to insects the fact that they check themselves, because, if they did not exist, no check would be needed ; still it is a sober fact that parasitic insects are an important part of the insect world, and if they were absent for a few weeks, India would starve. Finally, there are the useful insects. These are connected with : silk, lac, wax, dyes, medicine, food for man, food for domestic animals, ornament." [Quelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- S. 35ff.]

Abb.: Grundplan eines Insekts (schematisch)
[Bildquelle: Schmeil: Zoologie, 1919]

2.9.65. Blattaria - Schaben - Cockroaches (Thai: แมลงสาบ)

Colebrooke (1807): "A cockroach."

In Indien gibt es über 120 Arten von Schaben.

Fig. 8 "The life-history of all known species agrees in the general features. Eggs are laid in the forms of a capsule, (fig. 9) a brown hard structure of characteristic form containing a considerable number of eggs. In Periplaneta americana, out of seven egg-capsules, four contained 16 eggs, two contained 18 and one only 12. Each capsule consists of a double row of cigar-shaped eggs, surrounded by a chitinous coating which is joined by a wavy line which runs along the one end of the rows of eggs ; when the eggs hatch, this line opens, allowing the young emerge. It is probable that the expansion of the eggs before hatching, a common phenomenon, is the cause of the opening of the egg-capsule, but it is also stated that the cement joining the edges is softened by a fluid secreted by the embryo just before hatching. The egg-capsule is not always deposited by the female as soon as formed, but is in some species carried in the oviduct almost until hatching ; in a few foreign species this habit is carried to the extreme, and the eggs are carried till the young hatch. An egg cluster of Periplaneta americana laid on the 2nd July, hatched on 27th July and the nymphs were only half-grown at the end of the following April. The young which emerge from the egg-capsule are in general form similar to the adult, the skin softer, the antennae and cerci with fewer joints, the wings absent. The number of moults is not known ; in captivity, development is slow, the common household species (Periplaneta americana), requiring several months to come to maturity. There is reason to believe this is the case also with the free-living species, and since the possession of wings is usually a matter of slight importance and the habits remain unchanged, there would not appear to be any necessity for quick nymphal development. The total length of the life history is not known, but the imaginal, like the nymphal, life is probably comparatively long. In all stages, cockroaches are found amongst fallen leaves, on the surface of the soil, under stones, in thick grass, and on trees and plants. The majority are nocturnal, living in concealment on the surface of the soil and forming a part of the large "surface fauna." The tree and bush species are diurnal in habit. A few are household insects living in buildings and these are undoubtedly wild free-living species which have migrated into man's dwellings. The food consists of dead animal and vegetable matter; these insects are "scavengers" and none is known to feed on living plant tissue or to attack living insects. Plant sap, decaying plant tissue, dead insects and the like probably represents the food of the free-living species. The household species have the same food-habits, a great variety of animal and vegetable substances forming their food while their dead brethren are freely eaten when hunger presses. Nothing is known as to the activities of Indian species during the different seasons. Hibernation, where necessary, is apparently passed in any stage and there appear to be no special "seasons" when cockroaches breed. Excessive cold, excessive heat, drought or hunger cause a cessation of reproduction, development and activity but no definite seasons have been made out. No species is known as a pest, though those which live in houses are objectionable and destructive. Since these insects are dependent upon crumbs, scraps, and access to human food, cleanliness and care should prevent them thriving. Where they are abundant, the simplest precaution is the use of borax, mixed with double its weight of syrup, as a poison ; many ingenious traps are also useful when baited with intoxicating liquor. The principal check on cockroaches are egg-parasites ; the ichneumons of the genus Evama lay their eggs in the egg capsules of cockroaches and the household species are not exempt from attack. Field cockroaches are attacked by fossorial wasps of the genus Ampulex, which sting them, deposit them in holes or crevices and lay an egg on them. The unpleasant odour of the household cockroaches is probably protective and is due to the secretion of liquid from glands placed between the 5th and 6th abdominal segments. (Minchin, Q. J. M. S., XXIX.) It is known that cockroaches contain internal parasites belonging to the Gregarine division of the Protozoa, as well as parasitic bacteria, Nematodes (Oxyuris), Hair worms (Gordius) and a Filaria. It is also probable that the large centipedes which enter houses in India are seeking blattids. Rats also feed on cockroaches. The family is a comparatively large one, with many described species, occurring in all parts of the globe. The majority of the Indian species are described by Brunner and Bolivar. Kirby's recent catalogue of the family lists 123 Indian species, which probably include the majority of the larger forms. The family is being listed by R. Shelford in Genera Insectorum ; it is divided into eleven tribes by Brunner, but it is unnecessary to consider these in this place. Fig. 10 Phyllodromia (Blatta) germanica, Linn. is one of the common small species found in houses in India and now cosmopolitan, probably introduced to India from Europe. P. humbertiana, Sauss. (cognata) (fig. 10) is a small brown species, the prothorax marked with black and light brown. It is perhaps the most common field species, found among decaying vegetation and also on trees ; its eggs are laid on the leaves and bark of trees. On the soil is its wingless nymph, a small black insect with median and lateral light stripes. Phyllodromia suppellectilium, Serv., is the small household species, common throughout the tropics ; it is winged, of a brown colour with varied dark markings. Stylopyga (Blatta) orientalis, Linn, is a widespread species, believed to have been introduced to Europe from tropical Asia and now carried over the world in ships. It is a dark coloured insect of a length of a little over an inch ; the tegmina do not reach to the apex of the abdomen and cover only the basal five segments. The males alone are winged. The development in Europe is stated to occupy as much as four years, the duration of each instar being very long. Fig. 9 Stylopyga rhombifolia, Stoll. (fig. 9) is a larger wingless form, brown, with varied yellow markings, found also in houses. This is the most common household species next to the large winged Periplaneta australasiae. Fig. 11 Periplaneta includes the two large cockroaches so common in houses and on board ships. Both are winged, red brown with lighter markings on the pro thorax. P. australasiae, Fabr. (fig. 11) is smaller than P. americana, Linn, the prothorax more wholly dark. The latter has the startling habit of flying about in the house before rain falls and is accounted a reliable weather prophet. This habit is possibly a relic of the instinct of its original free-living ancestor, which flew up into safety before the fall of heavy rain. Rhyparobia maderae, Fabr. is a cosmopolitan species, carried over the world by commerce. Leucophoea surinamensis, Linn, is a smaller thickset insect, the prothorax black, the tegmina brown ; it is common in the open and is widespread over the tropics. Panesthia regalis, Wlk. is a peculiarly striking species, black with a broad band of orange across the tegmina. It is one of the rarer plains' species. Corydia petiveriana. Linn, is a beautiful cockroach of South India, the tegmina having large white spots. Heterogamia (Polyphaga) indica, Wlk. resembles a large round woodlouse, wingless and nearly circular in outline. Collecting.—Cockroaches are found by searching under stones, among fallen leaves, on herbage and bushes, on the bark of trees, and among the debris that accumulates at the foot of the trunk of a large tree. The smaller ones are found also in thick (doab) grass in the hot weather." [Quelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- S. 57ff.]

Abb.: परोष्णी । Schabe, Badezimmer, Goa
[Bildquelle: Ian Evans. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/warphed/2288609992/. -- Zugriff am 2010-12-23. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, keine kommerzielle Nutzung, share alike)]

Abb.: परोष्णी । Blatta orientalis Linnaeus, 1758 - Gemeine Küchenschabe - Oriental Cockroach
[Bildquelle: http://www.ento.csiro.au/aicn/system/c_470.htm. -- Public domain]

 Abb.: Blatta orientalis Linnaeus, 1758 - Gemeine Küchenschabe - Oriental Cockroach
[Bildquelle: Carpenter, George H. (George Herbert) <1865-1939>: The life-story of insects, 1913. -- S. 12]

Abb.: परोष्णी । Blatta orientalis Linnaeus, 1758 - Gemeine Küchenschabe - Oriental Cockroach
[Bildquelle: Vilma Bharatan. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/16454146@N06/2397392296. -- Zugriff am 2010-12-23. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, keine kommerzielle Nutzung, share alike)]

Abb.: परोष्णी । Blattella germanica Linnaeus, 1767 - Deutsche Schabe - German Cockroach, nach der Häutung
[Bildquelle: Psychonaught / Wikipedia. -- Public domain]

Abb.: तैलपायिका । Schabe, Wald, North Wayanad - വയനാട്, Kerala
[Bildquelle: Shyamal / Wikimedia. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, share alike)]

Abb.: तैलपायिका । Schabe, Vellore - வேலூர், Tamil Nadu
[Bildquelle: Harshjeet Singh Bal. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/26386648@N06/4923461759/. -- Zugriff am 2010-12-23. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, keine kommerzielle Nutzung)]

2.9.66. Blauschwarze Fliegen

Colebrooke (1807): "A blue fly. Some deduce two synonyma from the explanation."

Abb.: Äußere Anatomie einer Fliege
[Bildquelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- Pl. LVIII.]

Abb.: Chrysomya (Calliphoridae) Species, Hyderabad - హైదరాబాద్, Andhra Pradesh
[Bildquelle: J. M. Garg / Wikimedia. -- GNU FDLicense]

Abb.: Sarcophagid fly, Bannerghatta National Park - ಬನ್ನೇರುಘಟ್ಟ ನ್ಯಾಷನಲ್ ಪಾರ್ಕ್, Karnataka
[Bildquelle: Saleem Hameed / Wikimedia. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung)]

2.9.67. Apidae - Bienen - Bees

Colebrooke (1807): "A bee."

Abb.: सरधाः । Mutillidae und Apidae
1.2. Mutilla poonaensis; 3. Steganomus nodicornis; 4. Ceratina viridissima; 5. Crocisa ramosa; 6. Anthophora cingulata; 7.8. Xylocopa aestuans; 9. Bombus tunicatus
[Bildquelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- Pl. XIII.]

Abb.: 2. मधुमक्षिकाः । Nest von Apis floralis; 2a. Königin von Apis floralis; 2b. Arbeitsbiene von Apis floralis; 2c. Männchen von Apis floralis; 3. Nest von Apis dorsata; 3a. Arbeitsbiene von Apis dorsata; 3b. geschlossene Wabe von Apis dorsata.
[Bildquelle: Transactions of the Zoological Society of London. -- Vol. 7 (1869-72). -- Plate XXII. nach S. 169)]

"[S. 217] The Apidae include social and solitary species, the social instinct being well developed in Apis in particular though perhaps to a less degree than in some Termites and ants. The majority have essentially the same habits and life history; the females collect nectar and pollen of flowers to feed themselves, to feed their young or to store up for the benefit of their young. A minority are parasitic, laying their eggs in the nests of their more energetic food-storing brethren." [...] [S. 221] The species of Apis are the common honeybees, three species occurring in India wild. These are readily distinguished, so far as the workers go, by their size. A. dorsata, Fabr., being the largest, A. indica, Fabr., the medium sized and A. florea, Fabr., the smallest. While all three are common in India, they do not all appear to occur together : A. dorsata is the big bee that builds large nests in the forest and away from cultivation ; A. indica is common generally in trees, as is A. florea, which in the plains of India is very often found making its single combs in any convenient position on a building. Bingham mentions A. indica as the commonest bee of Burmah, but florea is at least as common in India and its nests are far more often seen. A great deal can be written about these bees and the reader is advised to consult Horne's article in Trans. Zool. Soc, 1869, VII, p. 181, as well as Hooper's Agricultural Ledger on bees-wax. An English abstract of Castets' article on bees of South India (Revue des Questions Scientifiques, Brussels, October, 1893) will be found in the Tropical Agriculturist, January, 1908, p. 48. It is of interest as containing an account of the wild bees, as also of Melipona (Trigona) iridipennis, Smith. For practical directions in bee-keeping in India Douglas' Handbook of Bee-keeping in India (1884) should be consulted. Bees collect pollen from flowers, as well as nectar, and some collect a resinous matter from buds, from bark and other parts of plants. On the two former they feed themselves or their young ; with the latter they make the nest tight. Wax is a secretion produced by young bees and used to make cells for honey and comb. About 16 to 20 pounds of honey is said to be eaten by young bees to yield one pound of wax." [Quelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- S. 217, 221f..]

Apis dorsata Fabricius 1793 - Giant Honey Bee - Riesenhonigbiene

Abb.: मधुमक्षिकाः । Apis dorsata Fabricius 1793 - Giant Honey Bee - Riesenhonigbiene, Hyderabad - హైదరాబాదు, Andhra Pradesh
[Bildquelle: J. M. Garg / Wikimedia. -- GNU FDLicense]

Abb.: मधुमक्षिकाः । Apis dorsata Fabricius 1793 - Giant Honey Bee - Riesenhonigbiene, Nest, Thailand
[Bildquelle: Sean Hoyland / Wikipedia. -- Public domain]

Abb.: मधुमक्षिकाः । Apis dorsata Fabricius 1793 - Giant Honey Bee - Riesenhonigbiene, Mount Abu - माउंट आबू, Rajasthan
[Bildquelle: Bksimonb / Wikipedia. -- GNU FDLicense]

"Apis dorsata, Fabr. (Plate XXII. figs. 3, 3 «, & 3 b.) This is perhaps the best-known of the Indian honey-bees. It is extensively kept in a domestic state in the Himalehs, in hives generally consisting of hollow logs of wood built into the houses. Much honey is collected and brought for sale, especially at Petwaghur, in Kumaon ; and the wax is also an article of trade. This bee, when in a wild state, is most savage in its disposition, and is very easily provoked, in which case it sallies forth in large parties, pounces on the supposed offender, and often causes great injury and annoyance." [Quelle: Notes on the Habits of some Hymenopterons Insects from the North-tvest Provinces of India / by Charles Horne, Esq., H.C.S., F.Z.S. With an Appendix, containing Descriptions of some new Species of Apidae and Vespidae collected by Mr. Horne : by Frederick Smith, of the British Museum. Illustrated by Plates from Drawings by the Author of the Notes. -- In: Transactions of the Zoological Society of London. -- Vol. 7 (1869-72). --  S. 181]

Apis cerana indica Fabricius - Indian Honey Bee - Indische Honigbiene

Abb.: मधुमक्षिका । Apis cerana indica Fabricius - Indian Honey Bee - Indische Honigbiene, Kadavoor, Kerala
[Bildquelle: jeevan jose. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/jkadavoor/5040492321/. -- Zugriff am 2010-12-24. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, keine kommerzielle Nutzung, share alike)]

 Abb.: मधुमक्षिका । Apis cerana indica Fabricius - Indian Honey Bee - Indische Honigbiene, Bangalore - ಬೆಂಗಳೂರು, Karnataka
[Bildquelle: Vijay Cavale / Wikimedia. -- GNU FDLicense]

2.9.68. Eine kleine Bienenart, vermutlich Apis florea Fabricius 1787 - Zwerg-Honigbiene - Dwarf Honey Bee

Colebrooke (1807): "A small bee."

Vermutlich Apis florea Fabricius 1787 - Zwerg-Honigbiene - Dwarf Honey Bee

¹ पुत्तिका - puttikā f.: Puppe, Termite (= Verpuppte)

Vielleicht handelt es sich bei pataṅgikā um eine Bezeichnung für Termiten auf dem Hochzeitsflug.

Abb.: पतङ्गिकाः (?) । Termiten, die sich auf dem Hochzeitsflug in einem Spinnnetz verfangen haben, Periyar National Park - പെരിയാർ കടുവ സംരക്ഷിത പ്രദേശം, Kerala
[Bildquelle: Neil Hinchley. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/neilhinchley/63801346/. -- Zugriff am 2011-01-19. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, keine kommerzielle Nutzung, keine Bearbeitung)]

Abb.: पुत्तिकाः । Termiten auf einem Termitenhügel, Tamil Nadu
[Bildquelle: தகவலுழவன் / Wikimedia. -- GNU FDLicense]

"At certain seasons, immense numbers of winged nudes and females [termites] emerge. They are clumsy insects, and fly badly. They rise in a cloud and are at once attacked by innumerable birds and enemies. Those that escape shed their wings at the suture and couple. They then get into shelter and start a new nest if possible ; the female lays eggs, the eggs hatch to workers and the new nest starts. In spite of the immense numbers produced, few such females escape to found nests. The emergence of these sexual winged individuals is constantly observed during the rainy months, and appears to occur after heavy rain when the air is still. A small opening is made in the surface of the soil and immense numbers of the winged insects pour out, crowding one after the other. As they emerge they attempt to fly and flutter upwards in a cloud, a phenomenon very quickly observed and one which attracts the attention of birds. Many cannot fly on emergence but run on the soil first and these are the prey of ants which at once carry them off living. The phenomenon strikes one as curiously interesting, the immense number of individuals pouring out, their feeble upward flight into the air where they become the food of birds, the hasty death of those that do not at once fly, carried off living to the nests of ants and there devoured ; there is an immense waste of life, and the appearance of these winded termites is the signal for so great a gathering of ants and birds that one imagines it to be a well-known thing for which they are on the look-out at this season. Very few have a chance of surviving and even those which shed their wings do not escape, being the more readily carried off by ants. Fig. 47. Termes obesus. Winged form. Fig. 48. Termopis wroughtoni male and soldier. Fig. 49. Termes obesus, queen. [...] Termites are extremely destructive in houses, owing to their fondness for woody matter. On obtaining entry to a house, they will destroy wooden beams and rafters, door frames, window frames and other wooden portions, without such a fact being at all evident at first. Having obtained access to wood at the soil or having taken a tunnel up to it, they work wholly within annd remove the woody fibre. No estimate is possible of the amount of damage thus caused in India, and the prevalence of termites varies immensely from place to place. It is on record that in 1811 Government House, Calcutta, was seriously attacked and there seems no reason wha any building in which wood was used should nor be destroyed in time. Termite communities are so immense and their industry so great that their combined efforts are very effective. In other parts of the world, eatable objects are said to disapear in anight : the only parallel case of recent occurrence in India that can be quoted is a prison in Bengal, in which the bedding of the prisoners was destroyed in the night while tile prisoners were sleeping on it. Their efforts are not confined to dead vegetables tissue, but they are particularly destructive to wheat, to sunflower, groundnut and sugarcane. These little insects excrete an acid liquid capable of attacking metal and it has been found that where their galleries cross metal, the metal corrodes." [Quelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- S. 117ff.]

Apis florea Fabricius 1787 - Zwerg-Honigbiene - Dwarf Honey Bee

"Apis floralis, Fabr. (Plate XXII. figs. 2, 2 a, 2b, & 2 c.) This is a very interesting little bee, which builds its beautiful comb on the boughs of orange- and lemon-trees and garden bushes generally. The honey is much prized, and held by the natives to possess medicinal qualities. It is very harmless ; and although I have handled them freely, I never remember to have been stung by one. I procured two queens by taking the nests with all the bees in them into a dark room with a small window; the bees gradually flew to the window, and I thus easily found the queen. The males are seldom with the nest ; and out of some twenty I only met with them in two cases. I imagine they are driven out when they have performed their functions, as my gardener told me he often found them on and in the ground under the nests. In their general habits they entirely agree with A. dorsata ; the only difference is that they select the inside of bushes, and loop their nest round the bough, instead of entirely hanging it on below. I have occasionally found nests of this species built in the interior of mud walls, in the cavities between bricks, or in the hollows excavated by Termites. The wax is of a fine yellow colour ; but so little of it is found as not to make it worthwhile to collect it for commercial purposes. Their nests are infested by several moths, species of Pampelia, Aphomia, and Galleria having been bred by me from them." [Quelle: Notes on the Habits of some Hymenopterons Insects from the North-tvest Provinces of India / by Charles Horne, Esq., H.C.S., F.Z.S. With an Appendix, containing Descriptions of some new Species of Apidae and Vespidae collected by Mr. Horne : by Frederick Smith, of the British Museum. Illustrated by Plates from Drawings by the Author of the Notes. -- In: Transactions of the Zoological Society of London. -- Vol. 7 (1869-72). --  S. 181]

2.9.69. Bremsen - Gadflies  (Stechmücken?)

Colebrooke (1807): "A gadfly."

Abb.: दंशाः । Blutsaugende Insekten
[Bildquelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- Pl.  LXX.]

"Division A contains those blood-sucking Nemocera whose antennae are long and easily seen, Phlebolomus (Psychodidae), Ceratopogon (Chironomidae) and Mosquitos (Culicidae), with rough sketches of the larva and pupa of each. Phlebolomus and Ceratopogon are about twice natural size, and are drawn in their usual resting attitude. Division B contains Simulium, and the four main genera of Tabanidae, the latter showing the usual resting attitudes, and the larva and pupa, of the commonest genus, Tabanus. Division C contains sketches of the wing and head of the main genera of blood-sucking Muscidae, showing the relative lengths of proboscis and palpi and the hairing of the arista, with the amount of closure of the 1st Posterior cell. (The unnamed head and wing are those of Philaematomyia.) Division D shows the puparium and imago of Hippobosca. Division E. Flea. Division F. Hemiptera—young and adult bug (Cimicidae) and two lice, Pediculus capitis and Haematopinus urius (Pediculidae)." [Quelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- Zu Pl.  LXX.]

Abb.: Anopheles sp. und Culex sp.
[Bildquelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- S.  569.]

Abb.: Anopheles stephensi, der Überträger von Malaria in Indien, voll Blut
[Bildquelle: Hugh Sturrock, Wellcome Images . -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, keine kommerzielle Nutzung, keine Bearbeitung)]

Abb.: Anopheles stephensi, der Überträger von Malaria in Indien, im Flug
[Bildquelle: Hugh Sturrock, Wellcome Images . -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, keine kommerzielle Nutzung, keine Bearbeitung)]

Abb.: Anopheles stephensi, der Überträger von Malaria in Indien,Weibchen, beim Blutsaugen auf Menschen
[Bildquelle: Wellcome Library, London . -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, keine kommerzielle Nutzung)]

Abb.: Wassertümpel wie dieser in Assam sind die Brutplätze für Malariaüberträger wie Anopheles minimus
[Bildquelle: Leonard Jan Bruce-Chwatt, Wellcome Library, London . -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, keine kommerzielle Nutzung)]

Abb.: Lebensräume von Anopheles sp., dem Malariaüberträger
[Bildquelle: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention / Wikipedia. -- Public domain]

"INDIAN BLOODSUCKING INSECTS. As we all know, India is a country which has its full share of those vermin which spend the whole or part of their lives on the bodies of men and other warm-blooded animals, and also of those equally annoying insects which alight upon the body of their victim only when intent on gorging themselves with his blood. Of common vermin, the Bird-lice or Mallophaga (p. 110), are not blood-suckers, though they live as parasites on the bodies of their hosts : the blood-sucking species of insects at present known in India may be said to belong exclusively to two Orders, Diptera and Rhynchota. To the first of these may be assigned the Fleas, which probably represent a much-specialised offshoot from the old Dipterous stock, though they are generally given the rank of a separate Order or Sub-order (Siphonaptera). They represent that section of the Diptera which pass a considerable portion of their adult life on the host, though the egg. larval, and pupal stages are usually gone through elsewhere, in dusty and dirty places. Their importance in connexion with plague is well known. Except for the fleas, few blood-sucking Diptera spend much time on the body of the host, but the lives of adult Nycteribiidae and Hippoboscidae afford an interesting series of examples of variation in this respect. Some of them, for instance the one figured on PI. LXIX, fig. 8, appear to pass at least most of their lives on the host, and most of these species are wingless or feeble-winged : at the other end of the scale are the common cattle-flies (Hippobosca) which have strong wings, are quick fliers, and are always ready to strike camp and leave the host on whom they havesettled, though remaining if comfortable and undisturbed. These two families exhibit the mode of reproduction characteristic of the group (Pupipara) to which they belong (p. 655), and although little is known of their habits and life-histories it is probable that, as is the case with all other blood-sucking Diptera, the adult stage is the only one which has any direct connexion with the host, while as indicated above the closeness of this connexion varies considerably within the limits of the two families, and probably has influenced the reproductive processes to a considerable extent. After those groups, Siphonaptera and Pupipara, which pass a considerable portion of their adult lives on the host, we come to those Diptera which pay as a rule only flying visits to their victim, and take their leave after a short but hearty meal of blood. These belong to six families, and of these families five are particularly well represented in this country, the sixth (Chironomidae) being comparatively unimportant. The family which by relationship and habits approaches most nearly to the Pupipara is the Muscidae : as with the Hippoboscidae, which practically never bite man, the attacks of the Indian species of Muscidae are as a general rule confined to cattle, but this is by no means always the case, as in some districts and climatic conditions they (especially Stomoxys) will bite men viciously. Stomoxys is the commonest of the Indian genera, the others being Lyperosia, Haematobia, Philaematomyia and Bdellolarynx. All the four latter are found as larva in dung, but Stomoxys breeds by preference in fermenting vegetable matter, especially in heaps of grass and fodder, and in the piles of "seet" near indigo-vats, the flies being often so abundant at the period of mahai as to be a serious nuisance. These Muscidae often remain for a considerable time on the cattle, but this is probably in part because they are so frequently interrupted in their feeding by the movements of the victim, and they will persevere in the attack until satisfied with blood. All the blood-sucking Muscidae have a strong superficial likeness to many other Muscidae which do not suck blood, such as the house-fly, and to others which are often found sucking blood from wounds but which cannot pierce the skin for themselves : this the five blood-sucking genera are of course able to do, but whereas in Stomoxys, Lyperosia, and Haematobia we find a much modified and developed piercing proboscis, the mouth-parts (as also the venation) in one of the two new genera (Philaematomyia) differ much less conspicuously from those of the non-bloodsucking Muscidae, and the genus represents a connecting link between the two groups. Although not blood-suckers, the flies whose larvae live in wounds or sores may be here noted as also belonging at all events for the most part to the family Muscidae : the attacks of these maggots produce results often of a serious and revolting nature, and are technically known under the term " Myiasis." They attack both men and animals. To the family Tabanidae (Pl. LXII) belong a large number of species of the well-known Indian Horse-flies, Dans-flies, gad-flies, or "Clegs." The Siphonaptera, Pupipara, and Muscidae comprise only insects whose immature stages are purely terrestrial, but in practically all species belonging to the remaining families of blood-suckers we find semi-aquatic or purely aquatic larvae ; these families may be arranged roughly in the order Tabanidae and Psychodidae (genus Phlebotomus). Chironimidae (genus "Ceratopogon"), Siniuliidae and Culicidae. The larvae and pupa of the last two families are purely aquatic ; the larvae of Tabanidae and Phlebotomus live in mud, slime, or wet earth, and seek a comparatively dry spot in which to pupate, while the larvae of Ceratopogon are of two kinds, some living under bark and in similar damp shady places, while others are purely aquatic and agree in this respect with the numerous species of non-blood-sucking Chironomidae. We may make a further generalization by saying that in these families with aquatic or semi-aquatic larvae it is only the female that sucks blood, whereas in the purely terrestrial families both sexes may do so. None of the former group spend any very appreciable portion of their lives on the victim, whereas several of the latter do. As to the numerical ratio between blood-sucking and non-bloodsucking species, this varies in the different families to a considerable extent. Excepting a very few particular cases, we may say that at least one sex of all species of Siphonaptera. Pupipara, Tabanidae, Simuliidae, and Culicidae suck blood, but of the total number of species of Muscidae, Psychodidae and Chironimidae only a very small percentage have the habit : this paucity of species unfortunately does not mean that the number of individuals of these three families is any the less, for most of us have had abundant opportunities of observing the prevalence of sand-flies (Phlebotomus) at certain seasons of the year, although the number of species of this blood-sucking genus probably does not represent five per cent, of the total number of harmless species in the family to which it belongs. The same is true in an even greater degree of the Midges (Ceratopogon. family Chironomidae) and of the blood-sucking Muscidae, for they constitute only a very small fraction of the total number of species in their respective families. As regards the second Order, Rhynchota, which includes bloodsucking species among its members, we find again that these form only quite a small proportion of the Order as a whole. Among the Lice (Pediculidae) are species which pass their whole lives from egg to adult on the body of the host, and whose structure has evidently undergone great modification to fit them for a purely parasitic existence. The Bugs (Cimicidae), though often remaining for some considerable time on the body of the host (generally man), usually pass the greater part of their lives elsewhere, and seek their victim only when wanting blood. The results of recent work on the relations which exist between the life of blood-sucking insects on the one hand, and on the other the life of man and of those animals which he breeds for his pleasure and profit, have shown an unexpectedly close connection between the two, and of this the practical outcome is seen in the growing body of knowledge relating to the transmission and spread of disease among men and cattle. There are two ways in which insects may carry the "germs" of disease from one place to another. They may alight upon the excrement of diseased persons or animals, or upon sores on the body or on any other infective matter, and may then convey the infection elsewhere on their contaminated bodies or in their excreta. The transmission in this case is purely mechanical and it is immaterial by what kind of insect it is effected, though owing to the nature of their habits it is the Diptera which are chiefly concerned. It is not however in this connexion that the chief importance of blood-sucking insects lies, but rather in the part they play in the propagation of diseases which are due to the presence of certain microscopic parasites in the blood. It seems that in general these parasites can infect a healthy animal only by being directly introduced into its blood, and in the absence of blood-sucking insects it is difficult to see how this could very often occur : on the other hand, if blood-sucking insects are present they afford at once a ready means whereby a blood-parasite might be sucked up from one animal and introduced into another at a subsequent bite. It is in this way that the parasites appear to be usually transmitted, but there is still uncertainty as to the details of the process in many cases : the chief difficulty lies in deciding whether the parasite is carried by the insect from one animal to another in a simply 'mechanical' way, undergoing no change en route, or whether, as in the case of the malarial mosquitoes, the parasite on entering the insect's body undergoes a more or less prolonged series of changes before it is in a fit state again to infect a healthy animal's blood. The fact that insects have been found to have parasites of their own which are extremely similar to certain forms of mammalian blood parasites renders the matter more complicated, as does also the remarkable hereditary transmission of infective power exhibited by certain Ticks. The consideration of the Arachnids is outside the field covered by this book, but the Ticks are of great importance as pests of cattle and dogs, which they infect with spirillar diseases ("Tick-fever," etc.) and with Piroplasmosis (Biliary fever), while they are also responsible for an often fatal disease of fowls and for a human relapsing fever, a remarkable feature being that in some species the infection is not transmitted by the Tick which bites a diseased animal, but by that Ticks' young ones. As regards the Rhynchota, there is a strong presumption that Bed-bugs are responsible for the spread of human disease, and it appears that they are capable of harbouring the organism which causes Kala-azar and possibly of transmitting it by their bite (Rogers and Patton). Comparatively little attention has yet been paid to the Pediculidae which infest animals in India, but the human head-louse has been shown to transmit a spirillar fever among school-children (Mackie). Of those Diptera which chiefly attack cattle (Hippobosca, Stomoxys, and Tabanidae) all three families are suspected of being the agents whereby Surra, a serious cattle-disease, is spread, and investigations are now being carried on in this country with a view to deciding their relative importance in this connexion. (Leese). While the Indian Hippoboscidae, Muscidae, and Tahanidae are primarily pests of horses, dogs, and cattle, the remaining families of Diptera attack man freely, though they none of them confine their attentions entirely to human beings; the bull-flies or "buffalo-gnats" (Simuliidae) are said to bite so fiercely and impartially as to render certain hill districts practically uninhabitable during part of the year, either for man or beast, and the ferocious little sand-flies of the plains are well-known as disturbers of our slumbers. No very serious study of the Simuliidae,. or of Chironomidae or Psychodidae seems to have been made from the medical or veterinary point of view, attention having been mainly directed to following up and extending the original researches of Ross and others on Mosquitoes, but the possibility of sand-flies transmitting disease would seem at least worth investigation in this country. As far as the Indian species of Culicidce are concerned, reference to the list will show that we have about a hundred species at present known, though it is certain that a considerable number still await discovery. Of these only a part act as disease-carriers ; and, of those species known to be capable of so acting, not all have been found actually carrying disease-parasites in nature, but have been proved by experiment to be able to carry them. It is not improbable that all species of the genus Anopheles will be found capable of carrying the malaria-parasite. The commonest Myzomyia (M. rossi) is not a natural malaria-carrier, but M. culicifacies, christophersi (=listoni) and Turkhudi are. Of the genus Nyssorhynchus, N. stephensi, fuliginosus, Indiensis, and Theobaldi are carriers : perhaps also Cellia albimana. All these species are Anophelinae. Among the Toxorhynchinae and Addinae none are known to convey disease, but the Culicidae include several dangerous species. Of these by far the commonest is Culex fatigans, the common brown household mosquito of Northern India. This insect carries the worm-like parasite (Filaria) which is t4ie cause of various painful and unsightly conditions grouped together as "Filariasis" and including elephantiasis, lymphangitis, and divers varicose affections particularly common in South India. Culex fatigans has been suspected of complicity in the spread of some other diseases, but hitherto without definite proof. Another Culicinae genus, Stegomyia, is abundant in India, the commonest species being S. scutellaris, which seems to be widely spread. A closely related species, S. fasciata, occurs, in Bengal, in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, and this particular species is well known to be the carrier of yellow fever in the West Indies : whether S. scutellaris can also convey this most deadly disease is unknown." [Quelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- S. 659ff.]

Abb.: दंशः । Eine Bremsenart, Wayanad - വയനാട്, Kerala
[Bildquelle: L. Shyamal / Wikipedia. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, share alike)]

"There remain the important group of blood-sucking Muscidae. There is no easily recognisable character which will separate them from many other flies of similar general appearances ; the best character is that they suck blood. The importance of obtaining accurate knowledge of the distribution and habits of these blood-sucking Muscidae is, from the point of view of the stock-owner and breeder, very considerable, since it is extremely probable that these flies, together with some of the Tabanidae, are able to carry from one animal to another, the parasite which causes the very serious disease known as " Surra " (Trypanosomiasis). This parasite is extremely minute, quite invisible unless looked at through a microscope, and when seen alive in the blood of the diseased animal it has rather the appearance of a wriggling eel with a somewhat flattened body. An almost exactly similar parasite is the cause of the generally fatal human disease in Africa called " Sleeping-sickness," and this latter parasite is carried from man to man in the proboscis of Glossina, an African blood-sucking Muscid. In both sleeping-sickness and Surra the parasite is conveyed much in the same way as the malaria parasite is conveyed by mosquitos, but with this difference, that the parasites (" trypanosomes ") of sleeping-sickness and surra do not, it has been thought, multiply in the body of the fly. but are simply carried in the insect's proboscis. Recent work on sleeping sickness tends to prove, however, that a developmental cycle is undergone by the parasites in the tsetse fly (Glossina). Stomyxis calcitrans All the Indian blood-sucking Muscida are similar to house-flies in size and general appearance, except that Lyperosia is a good deal smaller. The commonest species is Stomoxys calcitrans, Linn. (Pl. LXIX, fig. 3). " [Quelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- S. 645f.]

2.9.70. Kleine Bremsen (Stechmücken?)

Colebrooke (1807): "A smaller sort of gadfly."

Siehe zum Vorhergehenden.

¹ दंशी - daṃśī f.: weiblicher (= kleiner) Beißer

Irrtümlich nahm man an, das bei Tieren wie beim Menschen das Weibchen grundsätzlich kleiner ist als das Männchen.

2.9.71. Wespen - Wasps

Colebrooke (1807): "A wasp."

Abb.: गन्धोली । Vespa magnifica - eine Hornissenart
[Bildquelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- S. 163.]

Abb.: वरटाः । Verschiedene Wespenarten
[Bildquelle: Transactions of the Zoological Society of London. -- Vol. 7 (1869-72). -- Plate XXII. nach S. 169)]

Abb.: गन्धोली । Wespe, Punjab
[Bildquelle: Abhishekkaushal / Wikimedia. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung)]

Abb.: गन्धोली । Wespe, Kadavoor, Kerala
[Bildquelle: jeevan jose. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/jkadavoor/5237449430/. -- Zugriff am 2010-12-24. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, keine kommerzielle Nutzung, share alike)]

Abb.: गन्धोली । Wespe mit Nest, Mangalore - ಮಂಗಳೂರು, Karnataka
[Bildquelle: wildxplorer. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/krayker/2120175898/. -- Zugriff am 2010-12-24. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung)]

Abb.: गन्धोल्यः । Wespen mit Nest, Indien
 [Bildquelle: Hari Ratan. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/ratan/5277240948/. -- Zugriff am 2010-12-24. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, keine kommerzielle Nutzung, keine Bearbeitung)]

Abb.: Wespennest, Tamil Nadu
[Bildquelle: த*உழவன் / Wikimedia. -- Public domain]

Abb.: Nest von Vespa orientalis
[Bildquelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- Pl. XI.]

2.9.72. Gryllidae - Grillen - Crickets

Colebrooke (1807): "A cricket."

Abb.: भृङ्गारी । Grille, Wayanad - വയനാട്, Kerala
[Bildquelle: L. Shyamal / Wikipedia. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, share alike)]

"Gryllidae produce loud and sustained sounds, often very shrill, by the rapid vibration of the wings, one (right) working over the other (left), the edge of the one acting on the file on the other. The males have the flat area of the tegmina modified to intensity the sound, though to a less extent than is the case in Locustidae. The sound is peculiarly shrill and sustained, extremely difficult to locate in the field. Some of the smaller species may be seen to be vibrating their wings but the sound produced is not audible to everyone, the pitch being so high it is beyond the register of the normal human ear. Apterous forms also occur and species in which the wings are reduced in size. Almost nothing is known of the life history of Indian crickets. The young are similar in general appearance to the adults, but the number of moults is not known. There are practically three distinct classes of crickets. Some burrow deeply in the soil, making very extensive burrows which have several openings at the surface. Others live on the surface, among fallen leaves and other debris and make short burrows into which to retire but do not habitually live concealed in them. Of these a few are household insects.  Others live on plants, passing their life among bushy vegetation The burrowing species are vegetariam feeding upon roots and also coming up at night to cut off green vegetation. Little is known of the food of other species. The small bush crickets are to some extent predaceous on small insects and there is no reason to believe they are vegetarian. The surface-living species are possibly also predaceous but one at least is found feeding upon living plants. Crickets are universally distributed in India and are perhps as abundant in the drier plain areas as in the moist tracts of the delta and forest districts. Fig. 40: Brachytrypes achatinus The large brown cricket (Brachytrypes achatinus, Stoll.), is the most familiar burrowing species, found commonly in the Himalayas and the adjacent plains, in Assam and Burma. It has a wide distribution in Eastern Asia and may be widely distributed in suitable localities throughout the plains. It grows to a large size and is rarely seen on the surface save when the heavy rains flood it out from its burrows. At dusk, the male comes to the surface, and pours forth its strident note, the sustained shrill vibration being very piercing and, as one approaches, beating in the ears with extraordinary intensity ; even a Cicada hardly produces such intensity of sound At  dusk the cricket seeks its food, the leaves and shoots o£ plants which it eats or draws into its burrow. The life history occupies one year, the winged adults being found from late April to September, only nymphs being found in the cold weather. It has been successfully reared in the Pusa insectary on a diet of green lucerne and other plants. This species is the prey of Sphex lobatus the metallic green digger wasp (see Sphegidae). Liogryllus bimaculatus, deG. is black, with an orange spot at the base of each tegmen. It appears to occur throughout India, and is stated to be found throughout the East. It has been found in Khandesh to cut through the stems of potato plants at soil level. (Ind. Mus. Notes, Vol. Ill, p. 97 .) Fig. 41: Gryllodes melanocephalus Gryllodes melanocephalus, Serv. (fig. 41) is reported as injurious to crops and has been found in some number in parts of the Punjab. It is a  surface-burrowing species, living in the fields and not making deep burrows. There are a large number of species to be found in the plains and an investigation of the Indian species is much to be desired." [Quelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- S. 102ff.]

2.9.73. Heuschrecken - Grasshopers

Colebrooke (1807): "A grasshopper."

Abb.: शलभौ । 5. Acrididae - Grasshopers - Feldheuschrecken; 6. Locustidae - Band-winged Grasshoppers - Laubheuschrecken
[Bildquelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- Pl. 1.]

Abb.: शलभाः । The Bombay Locust - Accridium succinctum
[Bildquelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- Pl. 2.]

Abb.: पतङ्गः । The Bombay Locust - Accridium succinctum
[Bildquelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- Pl. 3.]

Abb.: शलभाः । The North-West Locust - Acridium (Schistocera) peregrinum
[Bildquelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- Pl. 3.]

Abb.: पतङ्गः । The North-West Locust - Acridium (Schistocera) peregrinum
[Bildquelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- Pl. 5.]

Abb.: पतङ्गः । The Black-spotted Grasshopper - Cyrtacanthacris ranacea (Acridium aeruginosum)
[Bildquelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- Pl. 6.]

Abb.: शलभः । Rice Grasshopper - Hieroglyphus furcifer
[Bildquelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- Pl. 7.]

Abb.: शलभः । Nicht identifizierte Spezies von Heuschrecke, Hyderabad - హైదరాబాద్, Andhra Pradesh
[Bildquelle: J. M. Garg / Wikimedia. -- GNU FDLicense]
Abb.: शलभः । Schistocerca gregaria - Desert Locust, Herbal Garden, Rangareddy District - రంగా రెడ్డి జిల్లా, Andhra Pradesh
[Bildquelle: J. M. Garg / Wikimedia. -- GNU FDLicense]

Abb.: शलभः । Orthacris-Spezies von Heuschrecke, Hyderabad - హైదరాబాద్, Andhra Pradesh
[Bildquelle: J. M. Garg / Wikimedia. -- GNU FDLicense]

Abb.: पतङ्गः । Aularches miliaris Bannerghatta National Park - ಬನ್ನೇರುಘಟ್ಟ ನ್ಯಾಷನಲ್ ಪಾರ್ಕ್, Karnataka
[Bildquelle: L. Shyamal / Wikimedia. -- GNU FDLicense]

Abb.: पतङ्गः । Heuschrecke, Wayanad - വയനാട്, Kerala
[Bildquelle: L. Shyamal / Wikipedia. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, share alike)]

"This family, being wholly herbivorous and very abundant, is one of the most injurious to Agriculture. Besides the two locusts, there are grasshoppers which attack special crops and the many species, which when abundant, attack gramineous crops. Few of these are specific pests of particular crops, they occur spasmodically and irregularly and, since grasshoppers are of universal occurrence, nothing is done to check them until they are already abundantly destructive. A distinct class of pest are the Surface Grasshoppers, species belonging to the genera Chrotogonus, Epacromia, Atractomorpha, which live on the soil and attack young crops. Little is known of which species of grasshopper are destructive since the actually destructive species is not always the one sent in as destructive and there is here a large field for research. The student may be cautioned against accepting the reports of injury by Acridiids in Indian Museum Notes; often an entirely harmless species is sent in, being the first one to come to hand. Not more than two locusts and six grasshoppers are actually and positively known to be injurious in India. Whilst there is some information available as to the enemies of the two locusts, little is known of the checks on the increase of the family as a whole. The eggs of the locusts are attacked by Hymenopterous parasites, the young by ground beetles (Carabidae), the adults by parasitic insects and the young of a mite (Trombidium grandissimum., Koch.). An Oligochaet worm (Henleya Lefroyi, Bedd.) has been found destroying the eggs of one locust and probably attacks those of other Acridiids. Birds, monkeys and squirrels feed on locusts and the larger grasshoppers ; mynas, hoopooes and other birds eat hoppers and fossorial wasps store their nests with small hoppers. Certain fly and beetle grubs attack the eggs, but while these are probably insects of the families Bombyliidae and Cantharidae, respectively, the species concerned are not known. The family is a very large one, the largest of the Orthoptera, but no complete list exists. It is universally distributed through the tropical and temperate zones, with a large number of species. Indian forms are largely Indo-Malayan, or have a wide distribution over Southern and Eastern Asia ; a few are European and African. In India, the species are, so far as known, widely spread and not local, though Burmah appears to have many species not found in India. No catalogue of Indian species has been compiled and the information is buried in the literature of the past century. (See page 48.) Bolivar records 100 species from a small area of South India, Brunner records 157 from Burmah. There are probably 500 recorded Indian species and at least 1,000 now existing in India." [Quelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- S. 79f.]

2.9.74. Lampyridae - Glühwürmchen - Fireflies

Colebrooke (1807): "A firefly."

Abb.: ज्योतिरिङ्गणाः । Glühwürmchen, Selangor, Malaysia
[Bildquelle: Daniel Chong Kah Fui דניאל 張家輝. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/dckf/281273416/. -- Zugriff am 2010-12-24. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, keine kommerzielle Nutzung, keine Bearbeitung)]

Abb.: खद्योतः । Glühwürmchen, Nordindien
[Bildquelle: Rmng / Wikimedia. -- Public domain]

Abb.: ज्योतिरिङ्गणः । Glühwürmchen, Türkei
[Bildquelle: Nevit Dilmen / Wikimedia. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, share alike)]

Abb.: Glühwürmchen, Javadi Hills, Tamil Nadu
[Bildquelle: Shyamal / Wikimedia. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung)]

Abb.: Glühwürmchen, Javadi Hills, Tamil Nadu
[Bildquelle: Shyamal / Wikimedia. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung)]

Fig. 199 - 202 "In moist localities, as in the submontane forest areas, are found the peculiar flat larvae (Fig. 201) of the sub-family Lampyrinae. These insects are often over one inch long, the segments flattened, the notum forming a flat plate which covers the segment ; [...] This luminosity is very striking, a bright greenish white light being emitted. The light is evidently under the control of the insect and can be quickly produced, though on the cessation of stimulus it fades only slowly. The luminous patches are on the ventral surface and though the overlapping dorsal plate is to a large extent transparent, the light is emitted principally upon the ground. These insects are nocturnal, are dependent upon moist conditions and feed upon snails. A large specimen required at least six small snails daily and with sufficient moisture and enough snails throve in captivity. The luminosity is not used in feeding : the insect seizes a snail, curls over on its back with the snail held in its legs and slowly devours the muscular part, leaving the alimentary canal. [...] In India the Lampyride division of tins family includes the only luminous insects. [...] Diaphanes marginella, Ho., Luciola Gorhami, Rits. and L. ovalis, Ho., are the light-emitting species so abundant in trees at night during the rainy months. The males have a larger luminous area (three segments) than the females (two segments) and are extremely bright and vivid in some cases." [Quelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- S. 321ff.]

2.9.75. Apidae - Bienen - Bees

Colebrooke (1807): "A large black bee. Or a black beetle."

Zu Bienen siehe oben!

Große schwarze Biene: Vielleicht Xylocopa sp. - Carpenter Bees - Holzbienen

Abb.: Xylocopa sp. - Carpenter Bee - Holzbiene, Kozhikode - കോഴിക്കോട്, Kerala
[Bildquelle: Sunil060902 / Wikimedia. -- GNU FDLicense]

Abb.: Xylocopa sp. - Carpenter Bee - Holzbiene, Bangalore, Karnataka
[Bildquelle: Shyamal / Wikimedia. -- Creative Commons Lizenz (Namensnennung, share alike)]

Pl. XIII: Xylocopa aestuans Linnaeus, 1758, Männchen (7), Weibchen (8) "Xylocopa includes the familiar large carpenter bees which make tunnels in hard dry wood ; they are large, usually black insects, with dark wings and are distinctly the largest of the bees in the plains. Xylocopa aestuans, Linn., in which the male is covered in yellow pubescence, the female in black, is the very common species, whose nests may be seen in posts and beams. (Plate XIII, Figs. 7, 8.)" [Quelle: Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (Harold) <1877-1925>:  Indian insect life : a manual of the insects of the plains (tropical India). -- Calcutta, 1909. -- S. 220.]

Zu siṃhādivargaḥ.  -- 11. Vers 30 - 37 (Pfauen und andere Vögel)