ulturen von Arbeit und Kapital

Teil 3: Kapitaleignerkulturen

6. Asiatische Beziehungsnetzwerke

2. Korea: Chaebol (재벌; 財閥)


von Margarete Payer

mailto: payer@payer.de


Zitierweise / cite as:

Payer, Margarete <1942 - >: Kulturen von Arbeit und Kapital. -- Teil 3: Kapitaleignerkulturen. -- 6. Asiatische Beziehungsnetzwerke. -- 2. Korea: Chaebol (재벌; 財閥). -- Fassung vom 2005-10-20. -- URL: http://www.payer.de/arbeitkapital/arbeitkapital030602.htm        

Erstmals publiziert: 2005-10-11

Überarbeitungen: 2005-10-20 [Ergänzungen]

Anlass: Lehrveranstaltung an der Hochschule der Medien Stuttgart, Wintersemester 2005/06

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Südkorea (Republik Korea)
대한민국


0. Übersicht



1. Chaebol (재벌; 財閥)


"Chaebol (jě'-bэl) is the Korean word for business conglomerates, and often refers in English to the several dozen large, family-controlled Korean corporate groups which have played a major role in the South Korean economy since the 1960s. Several have become well-known international brand names. One of these, Hyundai, has played a role in the slight thawing of relations between North and South Korea since 2000.

Management structure

Some Chaebol are one large corporation, while others have broken up into loosely connected groups of separate companies sharing a common name. Even in the latter case, each is almost always owned, controlled, and/or managed by the same family group.

History

South Korea's economy was small and predominantly agricultural well into the mid-20th century. However, the policies of President Park Chung Hee [박정희; 朴正熙 ; 1917 - 1979; Präsident: 1961 - 1979] spurred rapid industrialization by promoting large businesses, following his seizing power in 1961. Government industrial policy set the direction of new investment, and the chaebol were to be guaranteed loans from the banking sector. In this way, the chaebol played a key role in developing new industries, markets, and export production, helping place South Korea as one of the East Asian Tigers. By the 1990s, South Korea was one of the largest NIEs, and boasted a standard of living comparable to industrialized countries.

President Kim Young-sam [김영삼; 金泳三 ; 1927 - ; Präsident: 1993- 1998]began to challenge the chaebol, but it was not until the Asian financial crisis in 1997 that the weaknesses of the system were widely understood. The chaebol were heavily invested in export-oriented manufacturing, neglecting the domestic market, and exposing the economy to any downturns in overseas markets. In competing with each other, they had built up unsustainable overcapacity—on the eve of the crisis South Korea, with a population only ranked at #26 in the world, had seven major automobile manufacturers.

Many of the chaebol had become severely indebted to finance their expansion, not only to state industrial banks, but to independent banks and their own financial services subsidiaries. In the aftermath of the crisis when they could not service their debt, banks could neither foreclose nor write off bad loans without themselves collapsing. The most spectacular example came in mid-1999 with the collapse of the Daewoo Group, which had some US$80 billion in unpaid debt. At the time, it was the largest corporate bankruptcy in history.

Investigations also exposed widespread corruption in the chaebol, particularly fraudulent accounting and bribery.

Reforms

Under President Kim Dae-jung [김대중; 金大中;  1925 - ; Präsident: 1998 - 2003], elected in the wake of the crisis, the government made several efforts to reform the economy.

  • Instead of competing in every industry, the chaebol were pressured to focus on core businesses and spin off unrelated enterprises.
  • The chaebol were to decentralize their management and encourage the hiring of professional managers.
  • Accounting regulations were strengthened to limit the ability of chaebol to hide losses and debt at underperforming subsidiaries.
  • A crackdown on antitrust laws and inheritance taxes would impede the ability of families to retain control over their chaebol.

Both Kim and his successor, Roh Moo-hyun, have had mixed success. The chaebol continue to dominate South Korea's economy. Hyundai and SK Group have been implicated in separate scandals involving both presidents.

The Federation of Korean Industries, a consortium of chaebol, has taken a leading role in resisting changes."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaebol. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-25]

"Aktoren und Eigentumsstrukturen der Chaebol

Als Chaebol bezeichnet man die koreanischen Unternehmungskonglomerate, die in einer Vielzahl von unterschiedlichen Branchen aktiv sind. Chaebol stellen Mischkonzerne dar, die in unterschiedlichen Sektoren wie dem Schiffs- und Maschinenbau, der Automobil- und Elektronikindustrie sowie der Textil- und Nahrungsmittelbranche aktiv sind. Im Vergleich zu den Keiretsu [系列] spielen bei den Chaebol die Banken und Handelshäuser eine etwas geringere Rolle. Dies heißt aber nicht, dass nicht auch Bank- und Handelsaktivitäten internalisiert sind. Im Gegenteil: Chaebol beschränken ihre Transaktionen mit Unternehmungen von außerhalb auf sehr wenige Bereiche. Die wenigsten Aktivitäten sind bei ihnen externalisiert. Doch hinsichtlich ihres Aufgabenspektrums kommt den Banken und Handelshäusern bei den Chaebol eine geringere Bedeutung zu als bei den Keiretsu. Die Handelshäuser sind im Prinzip Exportunternehmungen, die den Absatz der Produkte im Ausland sicherstellen - allerdings mit großem Erfolg, wie die zunehmende Internationalisierung koreanischer Unternehmungen zeigt.

Es wird davon gesprochen, dass inzwischen nach größeren Umstrukturierungen der koreanischen Wirtschaft infolge der Asienkrise etwa 30 verschiedene Chaebol existieren, die bis zu 75% des koreanischen Bruttosozialprodukts erzielen. Die größten Chaebol sind Hyundai, Samsung, LG (Lucky Goldstar), SK, Hanjin, Lotte und Daewoo. Auffällig ist der Größenunterschied zwischen den größten und kleinsten dieser Chaebol. Der größte Chaebol-Konzern, Hyundai, ist mehr als 30 mal so groß wie der kleinste der 30 Chaebol (vgl. o.V. (2000): Die 30 „neuen" Chaebol. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung Nr. 151 vom 03. Juli 2000, S. 28). Für die Außenwirtschaft sind die Chaebol noch wichtiger. Allein die größten zehn Chaebol wickeln mehr als 50% der gesamten koreanischen Exporte ab.

Die Chaebol sind in der Regel im Besitz einer bestimmten Familie, die auch die Führung des Chaebol innehat. An der Spitze des Chaebols steht der „Chongsu" (Vorsitzender). Bis Ende der siebziger Jahre des vergangenen Jahrhunderts war in allen Chaebol der Chongsu noch identisch mit dem Gründer. Neben dem Gründer bzw. Eigentümer sind zahlreiche weitere Familienmitglieder in verantwortungsvollen Positionen im Chaebol tätig. Doch anders als in Japan beschränkt sich der Begriff „Familie" ausschließlich auf „Blutsverwandtschaft"; er darf daher keinesfalls mit dem in Japan gängigen Verständnis des „Hauses" verwechselt werden. Die meisten Chongsu wollen die Führung des Chaebol nach ihrem Tod bzw. bei Eintreten des Ruhestandes daher auch an ihre ältesten Söhne übergeben. Die Kontrolle ist im Chaebol stark vertikal und hierarchisch.

Struktur und Beziehungen im Chaebol

Versucht man die Größe der Chaebol zu erfassen, so stößt man auch hier auf das Problem, wo die Grenzen des gesamten Netzwerks gezogen werden sollen. Zunächst weisen die Umsatzzahlen der großen Chaebol darauf hin, dass es sich durchaus um mächtige Gruppen handelt. Allerdings sollte beachtet werden, dass selbst die größten Chaebol immer noch kleiner sind als die japanischen Keiretsu. Ein Grund für die geringere Größe der Chaebol ist sicherlich darin zu sehen, dass diese erst wenige Jahrzehnte existieren und daher bei weitem nicht auf eine so lange Geschichte zurückblicken können wie die Keiretsu. Auch die mangelnde Bereitschaft der Familien, Managementverantwortung an Nicht-Blutsverwandte abzugeben, kann als Hemmschuh für das Wachstum gelten. Und schließlich ist zu berücksichtigen, dass die Asienkrise zu einer Teilzerschlagung der meisten Chaebol geführt hat - mit dem Hauptziel, die Chaebol zu entschulden; schließlich waren (und sind) die Chaebol traditionell besonders stark von Fremdfinanzierungsmitteln abhängig.

Die Varietät der Aktoren ist im Chaebol etwas geringer als im japanischen Keiretsu, allerdings immer noch vergleichsweise hoch. Dafür sorgen die hohen Diversifikationsgrade der Chaebol und die Funktionsteilung im Chaebol-Netzwerk. Die Beziehungen in den koreanischen Chaebol sind deutlich stärker hierarchisch als in den japanischen Keiretsu. Die Beziehungen erreichen nicht die kunstvolle horizontale und vertikale Vielschichtigkeit der japanischen Keiretsu und sind daher auch etwas weniger komplex. Die Stabilität der Beziehungen und damit des gesamten Netzwerks ist geringer als in den japanischen Keiretsu.

Managementprinzipien im Chaebol

So wie sich nach Aiston das japanische Managementprinzip im Wort „Wa" [和] ausdrückt, so kann man das koreanische Managementprinzip mit dem Begriff „Inhwa" [원활; 圓滑]  umschreiben (vgl. Aiston 1989). Inhwa umfasst ebenfalls das Prinzip der Harmonie und beinhaltet ein langfristiges Zeitverständnis: Im Unterschied zu Wa zielt Inhwa aber nicht auf die Harmonie in der Gruppe, sondern auf die Harmonie zwischen nicht gleichgestellten Personen ab. Inhwa beschreibt damit die auf Respekt vor hierarchischen Beziehungen basierende Harmonie und den Gehorsam gegenüber der Autorität. Innerhalb der Chaebol bedeutet Inhwa, dass Untergeordnete gegenüber Übergeordneten loyal sein sollen. Umgekehrt hat der Ranghöhere für das Wohlergehen des Rangniedrigeren zu sorgen. Ein Blick in die einschlägige Literatur lässt darüber hinaus weitere Unterschiede zwischen dem Management in japanischen Keiretsu und koreanischen Chaebol erkennen. So sind beispielsweise das Prinzip der lebenslangen Beschäftigung oder die Beförderung nach Seniorität in koreanischen Chaebol schwächer ausgeprägt als in japanischen Keiretsu. Der größte Unterschied dürfte jedoch im - auch durch Inhwa zum Ausdruck kommenden - stärker hierarchisch gegliederten Aufbau und in der Top-Down-Entscheidungsfindung liegen."

[Quelle: Kutschker, Michael <1943 - > ; Schmid, Stefan: Internationales Management : mit 100 Textboxen. -- 4., bearb. Aufl.Verleger: München ; Wien : Oldenbourg. -- 2005. --LXXIII, 1387 S. : graph. Darst. ; 25 cm. --ISBN 3-486-57643-7. -- S. 769 - 771. -- {Wenn Sie HIER klicken, können Sie dieses Buch  bei amazon.de bestellen}]


2. The Big Four


2.1. Hyundai (현대; 現代)


Hyundai (현대; 現代) bis 2003, dann (nach dem Tod des Gründers, 2001) in fünf selbständige Teile gespalten [Webpräsenz der Hyundai Group:
 

"The Hyundai Group (pronounced: Hyun-dae, meaning "modern" in Korean), founded by Chung Ju-yung [정주영; 鄭周永; 1915 - 2001] in 1947 as a construction company, was once South Korea's biggest conglomerate (chaebol). The company was split into five business entities on April 1, 2003:
  • Hyundai Motor Group
  • Hyundai Group
  • Hyundai Department Store Group
  • Hyundai Development Group
Background

Before restructuring (beginning circa 2000), Hyundai's major areas of activity included shipbuilding, car manufacture, construction, retailing, finance, and electronics.

After founder Chung Ju-yung's death in 2001, the component companies of Hyundai were split off into separate companies.

Hyundai Group

Although divested of most of the high-profile Hyundai assets, the Hyundai Group still operates. Its most high-profile operation is Hyundai Asan, involved in numerous investment projects in North Korea. Other prominent assets include Hyundai Elevator, Hyundai Merchant Marine, Hyundai Logistics, Hyundai Heavy Industries, Hyundai Corporation, Hyundai Construction and Hyundai Securities. The current CEO is Hyun Chung-eun, widow of late chairman Chung Mong-hun."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyundai. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-25]


Abb.: Beisetzung von Chung Ju-yung (정주영; 鄭周永), 2001
[BIldquelle: http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200112/200112230346.html. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-27]

"Chung Ju-yung (정주영; 鄭周永) (November 25, 1915 - March 21, 2001) was the founder of Hyundai Group, at one time South Korea's largest multinational conglomerate (chaebol). Chung was born in Kangwŏn Province [강원도; 江原道] in what is now North Korea, and maintained a business interest in North Korea until his death. After his death, many of Hyundai Group's largest units were split off into separate companies, including Hyundai Motor Group, Hyundai Heavy Industries, and Hyundai Engineering and Construction."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chung_Ju_Yung. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-27]


2.2. Samsung (삼성; 三星)


Samsung (삼성; 三星) [Webpräsenz: http://www.samsung.com/. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-25]
 

Samsung was founded in 1969, and one of its subsidiaries, Samsung Electronics Co. Ltd. is one of the largest electronics companies in the world. Founded in Daegu, South Korea, it operates in around 58 countries and has over 208,000 workers. The turnover in 2003 was about 101.7 billion USD. Among the top 20 brands of the world.

At present, Samsung Electronics operates in 5 business areas, namely Telecommunications (Mobile Handsets and Network), Digital and Home Appliances (including washing machines, microwave ovens, refrigerators, VHS and DVD players, etc), Digital Media, LCD, and Semiconductors.

Samsung (meaning "three stars" or "tristar" in Korean) was founded by Lee Byungchul [이병철; 李秉喆]. Samsung Electronics is the flagship division of The Samsung Group.


Abb.: Lee Byungchul [이병철; 李秉喆]

Samsung is one of the largest South Korean conglomerates ("chaebol"). It started as an exports company in 1938 but soon diversified.

[...]

The 1990s and present

The 1990s saw Samsung rise as an international corporation. Not only did it acquire a number of businesses abroad, but also began leading the way in certain electronic components. Samsung's construction branch was awarded the contract to build one of the two Petronas Towers in Malaysia in September 1993.

Samsung survived the Asian financial crisis of 1997-98 relatively unharmed. It has kept expanding since then. Samsung's brand strength has improved impressively in the last few years, despite an environment of scandal and political intrigue.

Samsung is now one of the leading manufacturers in plasma displays, although it has struggled with building an image of being an innovator created by legal controversies over patent infringements with companies such as Fujitsu who claim to have created plasma display technology first. Samsung has also faced controversy in Korea for its policies towards workers, described by some as anti-worker."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-25]


2.3. LG


LG (früher: Lucky Goldstar; 럭키금성) [Webpräsenz: http://www.lg.co.kr. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-25]
 

"LG is a large South Korean chaebol (conglomerate), producing electronics (including domotics), mobile phones, and petrochemical products.

The name LG comes from an abbreviation of Lucky Goldstar (럭키금성; RR: leog-ki geumseong), the company's name until 1995. Before changing their name, many electronic products were sold under the brand name Goldstar, while some other household products (not available outside Korea) were sold under the brand name of Lucky. Lucky brand was famous for producing household cleaning products and laundry detergents in South Korea.

History

Established in 1947, Lucky Chemical Industrial Co. (now called LG Chemical), was the first chemical company in Korea. It expanded into the home appliance industry in 1958, becoming the country's first electronics company. LG is a joint cooperation between Koo and Heo families.

Although the company used to be known as Lucky Goldstar, the corporate Web site states that "LG is not an acronym, there is no full name for LG."

GS Group

In 2005, the company was split; the Koo family retained control of the LG group while the Heo family formed GS Holdings, which includes chemical, construction, telecommunications, and retail business among others. Numerous convenience stores, bookstores, and other retail companies which formerly operated under the LG logo were rebranded. The "GS" name, like LG, is derived from the conglomerate's older moniker, this from the "Goldstar" part.

Companies

LG has made a joint venture and created LG-Nortel Network. Since 2001 LG has two joint ventures with Royal Philips Electronics: LG.Philips Displays and LG.Philips LCD.

LG also has a joint venture with Hitachi, Ltd.: Hitachi-LG Data Storage, which manufacters optical data storage solutions like DVD-ROM drives, CD writers, etc"

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LG_Group. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-25]


Abb.: Koo Cha-Kyung  (구자경, 具滋暻) (1924 - ), bis 1995 Chaiman der LG Group


2.4. SK Corporation


SK Corporation  [Webpräsenz: http://eng.skcorp.com/. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-26]
 

"SK is Korea's third largest conglomerate and one of the leading business organizations in Asia.

We are made up of 40 member companies including seven that are listed on the Korea Stock Exchange. We have a presence on six continents and number 25,000 employees of many nationalities. Most important, we are united by a powerful management vision and philosophy that seeks to achieve superior results across the lines of our business worldwide.

Founded in the early 1950s as a small textile manufacturer, we have become one of the world’s most successful vertically integrated organizations. By the end of the 1980s, we had integrated upstream, moving into oil production, refining, and petrochemical production. In 1991, we completed our “From Petroleum to Fibers” vertical integration, a long sought-after goal.

Today we are a major player in a range of industries including:
  • Energy & Chemicals
    Among our major industries, energy and chemicals are the largest. We produce, market and transport oil, gas and other products worldwide. We also offer specialty chemicals, new materials, alternative energies and environmental services.
  • Telecommunications
    Concentrating on superior service, market expansion, and new information and communications technologies, we have become Korea’s dominant wireless service provider. What’s more, we are a key participant in the development of the global information network.
  • Trading & Services
    We offer a broad array of logistics and services around the world, from construction and hotel management to a global import-export network and finance.
To sustain our growth and profitability, SK continues to build strategic alliances with the world’s best companies. We are confident that our expertise, know-how and worldwide market infrastructure will enable us to compete rigorously year after year–in new business development, in overseas mergers and acquisitions, in joint ventures, and in the expansion of our global supply and distribution network."

[Quelle: http://www.sk.com/about/overview.asp. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-27]

 
Abb.: Tochtergesellschaften


Abb.: Jong-Hyon Chey (최종현; 崔鍾賢)

"Jong-Hyon Chey [최종현; 崔鍾賢; 1929 - 1998] shaped SK what it is today. SK prospered and became one of Korea’s top business conglomerates based on the management philosophy he has established.

Mr. Chey initially did not set out to become a businessman. He had actually aspired to be a columnist or a legislator when he undertook studies at the University of Wisconsin and the University of Chicago, but things took an abrupt turn when he returned home in 1962. He ended up working for his older brother Jong-Kun, the founder of SK. He then took over the reigns when his older brother passed away at the age of 47.

Mr. Chey spearheaded a second take-off between 1975 and 1980 through a restructuring process for horizontal diversification under the so-called “From Petroleum to Fibers.” He also emphasized the need to foster global standards among managers, engineers, and other specialists, along with management control. As a result, he published a comprehensive guideline for fostering the most professional managers in the “SK Management System” (SKMS).

When SK entered the field of information and communication in 1994, it completed its structure of core competence in energy, chemicals, information and communications.

Mr. Chey based his vision for the rapid globalization of industry in the 21st century on this solitary and principled philosophy, and SK’s very existence is made possible by SKMS and the promotion of SUPEX (Super Excellence Level).

With such visionary attributes in corporate management, Mr. Chey went on to serve as chairman of the Federation of Korean Industries between 1993 and 1998 to play an even more active role in promoting the prosperity of Korean industry, receiving various recognitions for his contributions and achievements in the process, including both the Gold and Silver Towers of the Order of Industrial Service Merit.

Mr. Chey passed away in August 1998."

[Quelle: http://www.sk.com/about/executives/former_chairmen.asp. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-27]


3. Einige weitere Chaebols


3.1. Daewoo (대우; 大宇)


Daewoo (대우; 大宇) [Webpräsenz: http://www.daewoo.com/english/index.jsp. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-26]

"Daewoo (meaning "Great Universe") is a major South Korean chaebol (conglomerate). It was founded in March 22, 1967 as Daewoo Industrial.

History

Kim Woo Choong [김우중; 金宇中, 1936 -  ] founded the Daewoo Group in March 1967. It became one of the Big Four chaebol in South Korea. An industrial and multi-faceted service conglomerate, Daewoo was prominent in expanding its global market through joint ventures all over the world. During the 1960s, after the downfall of the Syngman Rhee government, the new government intervened to promote growth and development in the country. They increased access to resources, promoted exports, financed industrialization, and provided protection from competition. In exchange for a company’s loyalty, the government granted favorable treatment to the chaebol. In the beginning, the Korean government instigated a series of five-year plans where chaebol were forced to achieve a number of basic objectives. Daewoo did not become a major player until the second five-year plan. Daewoo began trading and benefited from government-sponsored cheap loans by borrowing based on potential export profits. The company initially concentrated on labor- intensive clothing and textile industries that provided high profit margins. The most significant resource in this plan was the South Koreans large workforce. The third and fourth phase of the five-year plan occurred from 1973 to 1981. During this period, the country’s labor force was in high demand. Competitions from other countries begin eroding Korea’s competitive edge. The government responded to this change by concentrating its effort on mechanical and electrical engineering, shipbuilding, petrochemicals, construction, and home base defense initiatives. During this period, Daewoo achieved its general trading company status and anger aroused from competing nations due to strict controls. At the end of this period, Government policy forced Daewoo into shipbuilding. Kim was reluctant to enter this type of industry because he felt that there were other chaebol better suited to handle the heavy engineering project. Nevertheless, Kim soon saw Daewoo earn a reputation for producing competitively priced ships and oilrigs. During the next decade, the Korean government became more liberal in their economic efforts. Small private companies were encouraged, protectionist imports were loosened, and the government stopped practicing positive discrimination. These moves were designed to encourage free market trade and to force the chaebol to be more aggressive abroad. Daewoo responded to the challenge by establishing a number of joint ventures with U.S. and European companies. They expanded exports of machine tools, defense products, aerospace interests, and semiconductor design and manufacturing. After a gradual learning curve, they begin to build civilian helicopters and airplanes, which were priced considerably cheaper than those produced by their U.S. counterparts. They expanded their efforts in the motor industry and was ranked as the seventh highest car exporter and the sixth largest car manufacturer in the world. Daewoo had excellent experience at turning around faltering companies in Korea.

Daewoo's Growth Incentives
  1. Government Interventions: Government policy served as a double edge sword, it protected the chaebol, providing them with massive subsidies, unlimited cheap credit, and protection against foreign competition. However, the price for these services was total loyalty to the government. Chaebol were forced to take over industries against their will. The government was constantly involved in their businesses and stifled their creativity.
  2. Labor Market: Traditional work ethics that helped Korea reach economic prosperity has been threatened as workers have begun increasingly violent protest against years of long hours and low pay. Daewoo shipbuilding suffered heavy loses due to workers demand for pay raises.
  3. Operating in a Global Economy: International demands for free trade is forcing the Korean government to open its market. The chaebol will lose its protectionist import controls. Most recently, the North American Free Trade Agreement and the European Economic Community imposed trade limitations.
  4. Product Quality from Korea: Korean products were considered cheap quality. Companies are trying to improve that image.
  5. By the 1990s, Daewoo Group was heavily leveraged, major markets were stagnant, expenditures on R&D were increasing, labor unrest continued, and government policy adds to their worries.
  6. Kim was most recently charged with allegedly paying campaign contributions to former president Roh Tae Woo [노태우; 盧泰愚; 1932 - ; Präsident: 1988 -1993]government in exchange for a large government contract to build a submarine base.
Kim's Vision

Kim Woo Choong was an excellent entrepreneur. He led the company’s growth from an 18,000 initial capital value to $25 billion in annual sales. Some of the solutions he employed to counter problems identified in his company are as follows:

  1. He used organizational politics to work with the government. He understood that to gain power, resources, and growth, he needed the protection of the government.
  2. Daewoo Group was excellent at turning around faltering companies due to a well-managed, highly centralized organizational structure. Under Kim’s vision, he developed a unique culture in his chaebol known as the Daewoo Spirit. This spirit consists of a commitment to creativity, challenge, and sacrifice. Kim believed in co-prosperity whereby the company provides value to employees, customers, suppliers, partners, and the country as a whole.
  3. Daewoo enlarged its capital supply sources by diversifying its method of securing funds, including leasing and deferred payments. They raise funds successfully overseas for large foreign investment projects.
  4. Daewoo established a number of joint ventures with U.S. and European companies. Under the vision 2000 campaign, Daewoo established joint-venture production facilities, invested in foreign facilities, established sales and local subsidiaries, and localized component production and other operations. This campaign is aimed at strengthening Daewoo ‘s international competitiveness.
  5. After two workers committed suicide in 1987, Kim developed a unique program to mend management-labor relations. Manager and company presidents were required to work on the assembly line, and assembly line workers could be promoted to management level. This policy is aimed at improving the management-labor relations as well as help managers understand the difficulties and problems on the assembly line.
  6. Daewoo increased their R&D expenditure to be more internationally competitive. To boost this effort, Daewoo established a technology R&D team called the Institute for Advanced Engineering. This team used three strategies in technical development: competitiveness, managerial system development, and the use of technology network.

He also wrote a book on how he brought Daewoo from a 20-man company to an international group in his "The Streets Are Paved With Gold" or in Korean, "The World Is Big And There's Lots To Do, 세계는 넓고 할 일은 많다"

It is known that he was once a street vendor selling newspapers, gum and sweets when he was a youngster in Daegu.

Corporations

Daewoo Group, as was the official name, had under its umbrella several major corporations - Daewoo Electronics, a strong force both internationally and in Korea, Daewoo Heavy Industries, excelling in creating heavy duty machinery, and Daewoo Ship Building, under Heavy Industries boasted and still boasts one of the highest level of production of containers and oil tankers in the world today. Daewoo Securities, a financial securities company, Daewoo Telecom, concentrating on the telecommunication aspect of the electronics, Daewoo Construction, an international company, famous for building highways, dams and skyscrapers for countries especially in the mid-east and Africa. Daewoo International, a successful trading organisation, now still in operation. There were about 20 divisions under Daewoo Group, which now no longer exists. Daewoo Group was once the second largest conglomerate after Hyundai and followed by LG and Samsung in Korea before the crisis.

Crisis History

Daewoo Group ran into deep financial trouble in 1998 due to the Asian financial crisis and the defunct Korean government under President Kim Dae Jung [김대중; 金大中;  1925 - ; Präsident: 1998 - 2003]. The Korean government could not keep its own deficits down to a respectable level, so had to push companies like Daewoo off the chart. This ended with the ultimate destruction and dismantling of the Daewoo Group without much opposition. Chairman Kim Woo Choong was exiled in silent force overseas and was named a fugitive after he did not return. President Kim Dae Jung had apparently promised Kim that Daewoo would be restored if he left the country under the auspices of the government. Much to Chairman Kim's dismay, the creditors and the government did not carry out their promise, and managed to disintegrate the second largest conglomerate in South Korea, a hugely international company based around near 100 countries to an appalling halt.

The main argument for as to why Daewoo was completely liquidated was to the fact that at the time, President Kim Dae Jung was appeasing the North Korean government with financial aid and other materials. He expected the leaders of the Top 5 conglomerates to cooperate in his government's "Sunshine Policy", when Chaiman Kim Woo Choong did not agree with the massive "no return on investment seen ahead" investment, he refused to cooperate with the President. Chairman Kim was in fact one of the pioneers in setting up new ways of doing business with the North, one of the few who understood the Northern way of business. He insisted on a "give and take" policy which the President did not yield to. To this "audacious" response the Korean government under Kim literally destroyed Daewoo instead of helping the group in a time of financial turmoil. The company who was used and exploited for the "North Expedition" was in fact Hyundai. It was during this time they started to start massive North Korean investments, and the famous "Cow Shipping" that enabled around 1,000 cows to be sent over to the North. Hyundai was considerably weakened financially due to this, but the government due to its policy on loyal companies did not sabotage it.

Chairman Kim Woo Choong was sent overseas in exile terms at first, then the government released information on how he had in fact "fled" the country from possible prosecution. This of course was completely a backlog of a twisted powerplay going on the Korean government, when in fact, it was the President who advised Kim to stay out of the country for a few months. Ulterior motive: revenge on a company that was not supportive to his policies.

Kim Woo Choong returned to Korea in June 2005, and was promptly arrested.

Daewoo Motors

Daewoo Motors arrived in the UK in 1995, as the only - at the time - manufacturer not using traditional dealerships: it owned and operated its own retail network. It was once considered to be nearing the top 10 motor companies in production.

Daewoo was forced to sell off its automotive arm Daewoo Motors to General Motors by the Kim administration. Since then, GM has been moving to rebadge Daewoo cars as the low-end models for many brands, including Chevrolet. GM was sued by Daewoo's former US dealer network over this practice, since they no longer have new Daewoo cars to sell.

Current Status

Daewoo Electronics survives to this day despite bankruptcy, with a new brand logo "DE", but much of the other many subsidiaries and divisions have all departed and became independent or simply perished under the brutal "reorganisation" of the Korean government under Kim Dae Jung.

The group was reorganized into three big parts: Daewoo International, Daewoo Engineering & Construction and Daewoo Corporation. It is active in many markets; the most important are steel processing, ship building and financial.

In early 2004, Daewoo pulled out of Australia, citing irreparable brand damage, and later that year, from New Zealand. Later the same year, GM announced that Daewoo Motors in Europe would change its name to Chevrolet as of January 1, 2005. In South Africa, Thailand and the Middle East, Daewoo models were already being sold as Chevrolets. Only in South Korea and Vietnam would the Daewoo marque survive.

Back in 1980s and early 1990s, Daewoo brand also produced consumer electronics, computers, telecommunication products, construction equipment, buildings, ships and musical instruments (Daewoo Piano)."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daewoo. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-26]


Abb.: Kim Woo Joong [김우중; 金宇中]
[Bildquelle: http://www.hankyung.com/cgi-bin/kisaview.cgi?NewsID=2005013047751&Date=200501&Cid=13&Sid=139901&page=3. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-27]

"Kim Woo Joong [김우중; 金宇中] was the founder and former chairman of the Daewoo Group. Born in December 17th 1936, in Daegu, he was the son of the Provincial Governor. He graduated from the prestigous Kyonggi High School, then finished with an Economics Degree in Yonsei University in Seoul. His father was the teacher or mentor of Former President, Park Jong Hee, who in turn supported Kim to a great degree both financially and business-wise. After graduating from Yonsei, he enters into a small trading corporation, later specialising in textiles and clothing. He breaks off and creates Daewoo Industries with 5 people as his associates. Using his connections in both alumnis of the Yonsei and political backing, he manages to do well, and consecutively buys many different companies. It would not be wrong to say that Daewoo Group was originally built on companies that were bought. (mostly heavily in trouble) Kim was a magician in turning near-bankrupt companies into successive cash machines. With a company that had a history of 30 years, by the 90s, Daewoo Group was listed Number 2 on assets, Number 3 on revenues. An unbelievable achievement for anybody with knowledge of how the other Big 3 Korean companies made their mark (Hyundai, LG, Samsung).

But due to its rather hollow financial structure, even though it had the most Overseas Branch offices, when the Asian Financial Crisis came about, the unstable Daewoo Group plummeted. It had to sell off nearly 50 division corporations, only focusing on the major companies.

He was a newspaper delivery boy when he was a youngser, helping a family that almost depended on him during a brief period of time.

Kim was on the list for the Interpol when he was in exile, because of how he left Daewoo with all the insurmountable debt, to his employees etc, but that fact is now being disputed with credible sources saying that Kim had no wrong doing, it was the government's intention to punish an unloyal company that refused to take part in the "appeasement" policy with North Korea. The Kim Dae Jung administration has been heavily blamed for keeping Kim away from his country under the name "fugitive". His Korean passport expired, travels with his French passport.

He was arrested soon after he returned to South Korea on June 14, 2005, and apologized "for hurting the nation and accepted full responsibility for the collapse of the group, adding he is ready to accept whatever the authorities have in store for him," according to the Chosun Ilbo [조선일보; 朝鮮日報].

He is revered by a huge cult following of the so-called "Daewoomen", who think him as a true patriot of the nation, helping to spread the brand of Korea all over the world, providing jobs to the nation's people, bringing in wealth to a country that was half-chaotic with coup d'etats and corruption. He is well known even among the corporate leaders, to be diligent and unbelievably hard working. At one stage, he spent nearly 200 days of the year overseas, spending almost 100 days on transport, (plane, train, automobile).

His life motto was "Creation", which lead to the company creed, "Creation, Sacrifice, Challenge""

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Woo_Choong. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-27]


3.2. Hanjin (한진; 韓進)


Hanjin (한진; 韓進) [Webpräsenz: http://www.hanjin.co.kr/english/main.htm. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-26]

"Hanjin Group (KSE: 002320) is a Korean conglomerate, or Chaebol. A holding company that includes a shipping company Hanjin Shipping and Korean Air (KAL), which was acquired in 1969.

Hanjin began at the end of World War II on 1 November 1945. Early on its biggest customer was the U.S. Army, providing the transportation of material to both Korea and Vietnam. The company signed a major contract with the US 8th Army in November of 1956, and another contract in March, 1966 with all of the U.S. armed forces in Vietnam, including the Army, Navy, and Air Force. In November of 1969 Hanjin made its entry in the containerized shipping business signing a deal with Sea Land Services. It opened its first container yard less than a year later in September of 1970, at the port of Pusan.

The late seventies saw a major push into the Middle East with contracts signed with Kuwait at the port of Shuwaik (September 1977), and Saudi Arabia at the port of Dammam (March 1979), and at the port of Jeddah (May 1980.

In March of 1990 the company branched out into trucking and warehousing with the purchase of Korea Freight Transport Company. Two years later in June of 1992 the company started Hanjin Express to deliver small packages and provide courier service. The company started to load and unload cargo at the ports of Long Beach and Seattle with the joint venture Total Terminals Inc., in August of 1992. In January of 1993 they initiated container rail service between Pusan and Uiwang. In May 1995 the company hauled grain to North Korea.

With its majority interest in the Senator Lines Hanjin-Senator in the seventh largest container transportation and shipping company in the world.

Tax litigation

In 1999, Hanjin Group paid the largest penalty tax ever levied in Korea to that time; 541.6 billion won ($445.8 million). The Korean Herald even suggested that one of its three managing Tycoons might be imprisoned due to "prosecution on tax-evasion charges". The chairman of Hanjin also stood trial for involvement in "illegal campaign funding""

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanjin. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-26]


3.3. Lotte (koreanisch: 롯데; japanisch: ロッテ; chinesisch: 楽天 )


Lotte (koreanisch: 롯데; japanisch: ロッテ; chinesisch: 楽天 ) [Webpräsenz: http://www.lotte.co.jp/english/index.html. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-25]
 

"Lotte Group is a large international conglomerate founded in June 1948 (Shōwa 23) in Tokyo, Japan by Shin Kyuk-Ho (신격호, 辛格浩), a South Korean national living in Japan who is alternatively known by his Japanese name Shigemitsu Takeo (重光 武雄). After the normalization of diplomatic relations between Japan and South Korea in 1965, Lotte Confectionary Co., Ltd was established in Seoul on April 3, 1967. Originally called LOTTE Co., Ltd, the company grew from selling chewing gum to children in post-war Japan to becoming a major multinational corporation with overseas branches in dozens of countries and products shipped worldwide. Lotte Group consists of over 50 business units employing 38,000 people engaged in such diverse industries as candy manufacturing, beverages, hotels, fast food, retail, financial services, heavy chemicals, electronics, IT, construction, publishing, and entertainment. Today, Lotte is South Korea's eighth largest conglomerate. Lotte has major operations in South Korea, Japan, China, the Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, America, and Europe and continues to expand. Shin is 387th on the World's Richest People list of 2005 in Forbes Magazine.

Lotte's corporate offices are located in Tokyo, Seoul, and Beijing. According to the company's Japanese website, Lotte of Japan's capital stock is 4.39 trillion yen. Lotte of Japan employs 3,600 persons and operates 5 production facilities, 7 branch offices, and a research center in Saitama City. The company's core business focus in Japan is the production and sale of chewing gum, chocolate, biscuits, beverages, candy and ice cream. According to the company's Korean website, Lotte of Korea had 30 trillion won in sales in 2005.

In addition to candy and chewing gum, Lotte also operates the Lotteria chain of fast food restaurants, Lotte Hotel, and Lotte World in Seoul, Korea is listed as the world's largest indoor theme park in the Guinness Book of World Records. Lotte also owns the Lotte Giants baseball team in South Korea and Chiba Lotte Marines in Japan.

Interestingly, the source of the company's name is neither Japanese nor Korean, but German. Shin was impressed with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's "The Sorrows of Young Werther" (1774) and named his newly-founded company Lotte after the character Charlotte (also the name of a new brand of deluxe movie theatres run by Lotte) in the novel. Coincidentally, Werther's Original is a popular brand of butterscotch candy manufactured by German confectioner Storck. Lotte's current marketing slogan in Japan is お口の恋人ロッテ (o-kuchi no koibito Lotte), which can be literally translated as "the mouth's lover, Lotte"."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotte. -- Zugriff am 2005-09-25]


Abb.: Shin Kyuk-Ho (신격호, 辛格浩) = Shigemitsu Takeo (重光 武雄) (1922 - )


Zu Teil 3: Volksrepublik China: Partei- und Militärseilschaften