A grammar of the Kannaḍa language

2. On the form of the signs that are used as letters


by Ferdinand Kittel <1832 - 1903>

edited by Alois Payer

mailto:payer@payer.de 


Cite as:

Kittel, F. (Ferdinand) <1832 - 1903>: A grammar of the Kannaḍa language in English : comprising the three dialects of the language (ancient, mediæval and modern). -- 1903. -- 2. On the form of the signs that are used as letters. -- Fassung vom 2009-12-16. --  URL: http://www.payer.de/kittel/kittel02.htm                                                                

Originally published as:

Kittel, F. (Ferdinand) <1832 - 1903>: A grammar of the Kannaḍa language in English : comprising the three dialects of the language (ancient, mediæval and modern). -- Mangalore : Basel Mission Book and Tract Depository, 1903. -- VI, 483 S. ; 24 cm.

The original edition is online available at: http://www.archive.org/details/grammarofKannaḍa00kittuoft. -- Accessed on 2009-12-12

First time published here: 2009-12-16

Revisions:

©opyright: Public domain

This text is part of the department Sanskrit ofTüpfli's Global Village Library


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II. On the form of the signs that are used as Letters


(akararūpa, akṣarasañjñākāra, akṣarasañjñārūpa, varṇasañjñe, varṇāṅka, cf. §§ 217-241), etc.


[

Kannaḍa Unicode
  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
U+0C8x        
U+0C9x  
U+0CAx  
U+0CBx       ಿ
U+0CCx        
U+0CDx                          
U+0CEx    
U+0CFx                            

PDF of the Unicode coding of Kannaḍa: http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0C80.pdf. -- Accessed on 2009-12-14

]

10. Kēśava, the author of the Śabdamaṇidarpaṇa, remarks on the origin of articulate sound :

" By the wish of the individual soul, by means of suitable (vital) air, at the root of the navel, like a trumpet, the substance of sound (śabdadravya) originates which is white (śveta, dhavala); its result is (articulate, akṣarātmaka) sound (śabda)";

and:

"The body is the musical instrument, the tongue is the plectrum, the individual soul is the performer; on account of the operation of his mind (articulate) sound (śabda) originates which is of a white colour (dhavalavarṇa) and has the form of letters (akṣararūpa)."

Inarticulate (anakṣarātmaka) sounds, as thunder from the clouds or the roar of the sea, have no representations in grammatical alphabets.

11. There is a distinct letter for each sound, and therefore every word is pronounced exactly as it is spelt; thus the ear is a sufficient guide [p. 5] in orthography. After the exact sounds of the letters have been once acquired, every word can be pronounced with perfect accuracy.

The accent falls on the first syllable.

12. The name of a pure, true letter (śuddhākṣara) is akṣara, akkara, or varṇa.

13. Each letter has its own form (ākāra) and sound (śabda); by the first it becomes visible (cakṣuṣa), by the other audible (śravaṇa).

14. Kannaḍa is written from left to right.

15. The Alphabet (called akṣaramāle, akkaramāle in the old and later dialect and also ōnāma in the later one), as an instruction for the youthful (bālasikṣe), consists of 57 letters, in which case the so-called Saṃskṛta and Prākṛta kṣaḷa (the vedic letter ळ् of certain schools) is also counted, though its form and sound are the same as that of the so-called Kannaḍa kuḷa.

Of the 57 letters forty-eight (in various forms) are notorious on the "sea-girdled" earth, i.e. throughout India, and the order in which they are read (pāṭhakrama) is as follows:

ಅ [a] ಆ [ā]  
ಇ [i] ಈ [ī]  
ಉ [u] ಊ [ū]  
ಋ [ṛ] ಋ []  
ಌ [ḷ] ೡ []  
[e] [ē] ಐ [ai] 
[o] ಓ [ō] ಔ [au]

 

ಕ್ [k] ಖ್ [kh] ಗ್ [g] ಘ್ [gh] ಙ್ [ṅ]
ಚ್ [c] ಚ್ನ್ [ch] ಜ್ [j] ಝ್ [jh] ಞ್ [ñ]
ಟ್ [ṭ] ಠ್ [ṭh] ಡ್ [ḍ] ಢ್ [ḍh] ಣ್ [ṇ]
ತ್ [t] ಥ್ [th] ದ್ [d] ಧ್ [dh] ನ್ [n]
ಪ್ [p] ಫ್ [ph] ಬ್ [b] ಭ್ [bh] ಮ್ [m]

 

ಯ್ [y] ರ್ [r] ಲ್ [l] ವ್ [v]

 

ಶ್ [ś] ಷ್ [ṣ] ಸ್ [s]

ಹ್ [h]

[ḻa]

ಂ [ṃ] ಃ [ḥ]

The letter [ḻa] in this list is called kṣaḷa in order to distinguish it from the true Kannaḍa kuḷa. In Saṃskṛta the kṣala is a substitute for the letter ಡ್ [ḍ] (cf. § 230) ; in Kannaḍa it is a substitute for the Saṃskṛta letter ಲ್ [l] (see § 31).

In true Kannaḍa (accagannaḍa) there are 47 indigenous letters (śuddhage), viz.

(the vowels)

ಅ [a] ಆ [ā]  
ಇ [i] ಈ [ī]  
ಉ [u] ಊ [ū]  
[e] [ē] ಐ [ai] 
[o] ಓ [ō] ಔ [au]

(anusvara)

ಂ [ṃ]

(and the consonants)

ಕ್ [k] ಖ್ [kh] ಗ್ [g] ಘ್ [gh] ಙ್ [ṅ]
ಚ್ [c] ಚ್ನ್ [ch] ಜ್ [j] ಝ್ [jh] ಞ್ [ñ]
ಟ್ [ṭ] ಠ್ [ṭh] ಡ್ [ḍ] ಢ್ [ḍh] ಣ್ [ṇ]
ತ್ [t] ಥ್ [th] ದ್ [d] ಧ್ [dh] ನ್ [n]
ಪ್ [p] ಫ್ [ph] ಬ್ [b] ಭ್ [bh] ಮ್ [m]

 

ಯ್ [y] ರ್ [r] ಲ್ [l] ವ್ [v]

 

ಸ್ [s]

ಹ್ [h]

[ḻa]

16. The consonants (§ 25) that in the preceding paragraph appear with the top-mark (ಕ್, ಖ್  etc.) which indicates that they are to be pronounced without any vowel after them (asvaravidhi, vyañjanavidhi), [p. 6] are commonly printed with the sign

(a sort of crest, nowadays called talekaṭṭu) added to the top ( [ka] , [ga] etc.), in order to point out that the short Kannaḍa vowel a (ಅ) (y) is to be sounded after them.

In the case of ten consonants ( [kha], [ṅa], [ña], [ṭa], [ṇa], [ba], [la], ) however, the crest does not appear on the top, as it is so to say incorporated with them. It is supposed that the sign

is a secondary form of the Kannaḍa vowel a (ಅ, see § 24); but why are certain other vowels (u ಉ, ū ಊ, etc.) united with crested consonants? See § 37.

[List of the Kannaḍa consonants with inherent a:

  voiceless voiceless
aspirate
voiced voiced
aspirate
nasal
Velars (ka) (kha) (ga) (gha) (ṅa)
Palatals (ca) (cha) (ja) (jha) (ña)
Retroflex (ṭa) (ṭha) (ḍa) (ḍha) (ṇa)
Dentals (ta) (tha) (da) (dha) (na)
Labials (pa) (pha) (ba) (bha) (ma)

(ya), (ra), (la), (va),

(śa), (ṣa) (sa),

(ha),

(ḷa)]


Abb.: Places of articulation

17. The following is a tabular view of the forms of the 57 letters of the Alphabet as they are written and printed nowadays (cf. § 6), the consonants bearing the sign

(the talekaṭṭu, see 16). Their sounds are expressed in Roman characters with the aid of some diacritical marks, and illustrated, as well as possible, by English letters (the illustrations being given according to English authors of Kannaḍa, Telugu, Tamiḻ and Malayāḷa grammars):

ಅ [a] a. This letter has the sound of the English initial a in 'about', 'around', or of the English final a in 'era', 'Sophia', 'Victoria', or of the English u in 'gun', 'cup'. (There is no letter in Kannaḍa to represent the sound of the English a in such words as 'pan', 'can', 'sat', 'hat').

ಆ [ā] ā. This letter has the sound of the English a in 'half, ' father', or of the English final a in 'papa'.

ಇ [i] i. This letter has the sound of the English i in 'pin', 'in', 'gig', 'folio'.

ಈ [ī] ī. This letter has the sound of the English i in 'machine', 'ravine', 'pique', or of the English ee in 'eel', 'feel'.

ಉ [u] u. This letter has the sound of the English u in 'full', 'pull', 'put', or of the English oo in 'book'.

ಊ [ū] ū. This letter has the sound of the English u in 'rule', 'crude', or of the English oo in 'fool', 'root', 'shoot'.

ಋ [ṛ] ṛi. The sound of this letter can only be learned from the mouth of an efficient teacher. (Rustics pronounce it like the English ri in 'rich', or also like the English roo in 'rook'.)

ಋ []  i. The sound of this letter is that of lengthened ಋ [ṛ].

ಌ [ḷ] lṛi. The sound of this letter can only be learned from an educated native. (Rustics pronounce it like the English loo in 'look'.)

ೡ [] li. The sound of this letter is that of lengthened ಌ [ḷ]. (The letter is a mere invention of grammarians.)

[e] e. This letter has the sound of the English e in 'end', 'leg', 'beg', 'peg'.

[ē] ē. This letter has the sound of the English a in 'ache', 'fate', 'late'.

ಐ [ai] ai. This letter has the sound of the English ai in 'aisle', of the English ei in 'height', or of the English word 'eye'.

[o] o. This letter has the sound of the English o in 'police', 'polite', 'romance', 'produced', 'potential' 'located'. (There is no sound in Kannaḍa to represent the sound of the English o in such words as 'on', 'hot', 'got', 'object'. Uneducated Canarese people use to pronounce this English o, ಆ (ā) making, e. g. lost ಲಾಸ್ಟ್ hot ಠಾಟ್, top ಟಾಪ್.)

ಓ [ō] ō. This letter has the sound of the English o in 'gold', 'old', 'sold', 'ode'.

ಔ [au] au. This letter has the sound of the English ou, in 'ounce', 'out', 'mount'.

ಂ [ṃ] ṃ. This letter, when it is final, has the sound of the English m in 'botom', 'bartram'. (When in the middle of a word it is followed by a consonant, its sound depends on the character of that consonant, as in the words

 

cf. §§ 34. 39. 40.)

ಃ [ḥ] ḥ. This aspirate has the sound of the English initial h in 'hat', 'head', or 'hiss', the aspiration proceeding directly from the chest. (Rustics, in reciting the alphabet, use to pronounce it aḥa the a having the sound of the Kannaḍa letter ಅ [a])

This aspirate is used only before the letters (ka) and (kha), and then pronounced like the letter (ḥ).

This aspirate is used only before the letters (pa) and (pha), and then has a sound somewhat similar to that of the letter (ḥ). (In Saṃskṛta it is often represented by the letter ಷ್, ṣ)

ka. This letter has the sound of the English initial k pronounced with the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it.

kha. This letter has the sound of the preceding one, but aspirated, the aspiration proceeding directly from the chest.

ga. This letter has the sound of the English initial g in 'gold ', 'good', pronounced with the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it.

gha. This letter has the sound of the preceding one but aspirated.

a. This letter has the sound of the English letter n before g in 'king', 'ring', 'long', 'song' with the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it.

ca. This letter has a sound similar to that of the English ch in 'charity', 'charm', 'chase', 'child', 'church', pronounced with the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it.

cha. This letter has the sound of the preceding one but aspirated.

ja. This letter has a sound similar to that of the English j in 'judge', 'join', 'jar', 'jackal', pronounced with the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it.

jha. This letter has the sound of the preceding one but aspirated.

ña. This letter has a sound which is something like that of the English ni in 'opinion', 'onion' (the n being nasalised), pronounced with the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it.

ṭa. This letter has the sound of an English letter t that is formed by curling back the tongue, forcibly striking the under part of it against the roof of the mouth, and pronouncing the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it. (It differs essentially from the true English t, for which there is no letter in Kannaḍa. Natives, however, use to represent the English t by ಟ)

ṭha. This letter has the sound of the preceding one but aspirated.

ḍa- This letter has the sound of an English letter d that is formed by curling back the tongue, forcibly striking the under part of it against the roof of the mouth, and pronouncing the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it. (It differs essentially from the true English d, for which there is no letter in Kannaḍa. Natives, however, use to represent the English d by ಡ See also sub-letter ರ ra.)

ḍha. This letter has the sound of the preceding one but aspirated.

ṇa. This letter has the sound of an English n that is formed by curling back the tongue, forcibly striking the under part of it against the roof of the mouth, and pronouncing the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it. (No English letter answers to it; see under letter ನ na.)

ta. This letter has the sound of an English letter t that is formed by bringing the tip of the tongue against the very edge of the upper front teeth, and pronouncing the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it. (There is no corresponding letter in English, see under letter ಟ ṭa.)

tha. This letter has the sound of the preceding one but aspirated.

da. This letter has the sound of the English letter d that is formed by bringing the point of the tongue against the very edge of the upper front teeth, and pronouncing the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it. (There is no English letter which answers to it ; see under letter ಡ ḍa.)

dha. This letter has the sound of the preceding one but aspirated.

na. This letter has the sound of the English letter n that is formed by placing the tip of the tongue against the very edge of the upper front teeth, and pronouncing the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it. (There is no corresponding English letter. Natives, however, use to represent the English n by ಣ ṇa.)

pa. The sound of this letter answers to that of the English initial p pronounced with the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it.

pha. This letter has the sound of the preceding one but aspirated.

ba. The sound of this letter is the same as that of the English initial b pronounced with the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it.

bha. This letter has the sound of the preceding one but aspirated.

ma. The sound of this letter is like that of the English m pronounced with the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it.

ya. The sound of this letter is the same as that of the English initial y in 'yard', 'young', 'you', 'yonder' pronounced with the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it.

ra. The sound of this letter nowadays has an indefinite character like the Saṃskṛta r (which Canarese people occasionally mistook for their letter ) ; in ancient times it was formed by placing the point of the tongue against the very edge of the upper front teeth, producing a trilled, delicate sound of the English letter r, and pronouncing the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it. At present the sound may be said to resemble that of the English initial letter r in 'ring', 'risk' with the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) sounded after it. (English people often used to represent the Kannaḍa letter ಡ, by their r, as in Canara, Coorg, Dharwar = ಕನ್ರಡ, ಕೂಗು, ಧಾರವಾಡ)

ṟ. This letter has the sound of a very harsh English letter r pronounced with the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it. Nowadays it is not unfrequently represented by a double Kannaḍa ರ, i.e. ರ್ರ (see § 39).

la. This letter has the sound of the English letter ಲ್ that is formed by bringing the tip of the tongue against the very edge of the upper front teeth, and pronouncing the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it. (The Kannaḍa letter ಲ has neither the same sound as the Saṃskṛta ಲ nor that of the English l. The Saṃskṛta letter ಲ is very often represented in Kannaḍa by the so-called Kṣaḷa; see §§ 15. 31.)

va. The sound of this letter resembles that of the initial letter w in 'wife', 'woman', the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) being pronounced after it.

śa. The sound of this sibilant letter cannot be represented by any English letter; it is to be learnt by hearing an efficient teacher pronounce it. (Englishmen, however, have represented it by the s in 'sure' and 'session'.)

ṣa. This letter has the sound of an English initial sh (as in 'shoe', 'shun') that is formed by placing the tongue near the roof of the mouth, and pronouncing the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it.

sa. This letter has nearly the sound of the English initial letter s in 'sat', 'sin', 'so', the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) being pronounced after it.

[p. 10]

ha. The sound of this letter is something like that of the English initial letter h in 'horse', 'husband', 'hoop', the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) being pronounced after it.

ḷa. This letter has the sound of the English letter l that is formed by curling back the tongue, forcibly striking the under part of it against the roof of the mouth, and pronouncing the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it. (It represents two letters, viz. the kṣaḷa and kuḷa; see §§ 15.31.)

[sic!] ḷa. See the preceding letter.

The sound of this letter l is formed by curling back the tongue and pronouncing the English letter r, e.g. in the word 'farm', in a rather liquid manner (Dr. Caldwell) with the Kannaḍa letter ಅ (a) after it.

18. Of the above-mentioned 57 letters sixteen are vowels (svara).

19. The initial forms of the vowels are as follows:

  Kannaḍa Present Tamiḻ Present Malayāḷa[m] Dēvanāgarī
a
ā
i
ī
u
ū
-
-
-
-
e -
ē
ai
o -
ō
au

20. Seven of the vowels are short (hrasva), viz.

ಅ [a] ಇ [i] ಉ [u] ಋ [ṛ] ಌ [ḷ] [e] [o]

and nine are long (dīrgha), viz.

ಆ [ā] ಈ [ī] ಊ [ū] ೠ [] ೡ [] ಏ [ē] ಐ [ai] ಓ [ō] ಔ [au]

Short vowels have one measure (mātre or prosodical instant) or are ēkamātraka ; long vowels have two or are ubhayamātra  or dvimātra. A consonant (ಕ, ಖ, etc.) is said to last half the time of a short vowel.

Occasionally a vowel is lengthened to three measures in pronunciation or becomes trimātraka or protracted (pluta). See  140, a and 215, 6, letter k.

In prosody a short or light vowel is called laghu, and a long or heavy vowel guru. Such a long vowel is long either by nature, or by position (i.e. being followed by a double or compound consonant; see § 38).

21. Vowels are again divided into ten monophthongs (samānakṣara):

ಅ [a] ಆ [ā] ; ಇ [i] ಈ [ī] ; ಉ [u] ಊ [ū] ; ಋ [ṛ] ೠ [] ; ಌ [ḷ] ೡ [],

of which each pair is of the same class of letters (savarṇa) whether its letters be read in regular order (anulōma) as ಅ ಆ, ಇ ಈ,  etc., or out of the usual order (vilōma) as ಆ ಅ, ಈ ಇ, etc., or as ಅ ಅ, ಆ ಆ, ಇ ಇ, ಈ ಈ, etc.; and (in Saṃskṛta) into four diphthongs (sandhyakṣara):

ಏ [ē] ಐ [ai] ; ಓ [ō] ಔ [au]. The vowels ಏ [ē] ಐ [ai] ; ಓ [ō] ಔ [au], however, are no real diphthongs in true Kannaḍa; in this language the radical forms of ಐ [ai] are ಅಯ್ [ay], ಅಯ [aya], and those of ಔ [au] are ಅವ್ [av], ಅವ [ava] (see § 217).

Also the vowels [e] ಏ [ē] ; [o] ಓ [ō] are such as belong to one class, or are savarṇa.

22. By the way it is observed that, in so far as Saṃskṛta is concerned, the true Saṃskṛta vowels (§ 15), except a and ā, i. e. 12 of them, are subject to the peculiar changes called guṇa and vṛddhi (see § 217). Though the terms are mentioned by the grammarians Nāgavarma and Kēśava, their use is not stated.

The same is to be said with regard to the term nāmi which they mention, and which in Saṃskṛta denotes all the true Saṃskṛta vowels, except a and ā, as changing a dental into a cerebral. The Upēndravajra verso cited by Nāgavarma and Kēśava (probably from a Purāṇa), in which the terms guṇa, vṛddhi and nāmi occur together, is in praise of the 12 Ādityas.

23. In pure Kannaḍa the vowels ಋ [ṛ] ೠ [] ಌ [ḷ] ೡ [] are not indigenous; they are found only in words borrowed from Saṃskṛta.

24. If the initial vowels mentioned in § 18, follow a consonant, each of them uses a secondary form that is always compounded with one of the consonant forms (see §§ 36. 37).

[p. 12]

The initial forms of the vowels together with their secondary ones appear in the subjoined table:

  Initial forms Secondary forms
a

(see § 16)
ā
i ಿ
ī
u
ū
e
ē
ai
o
ō
au

Remark.

The form of the long initial vowel [ē], and the sign (see 37) nowadays regularly used to mark a long secondary vowel form, are somewhat uncommon in Kannaa manuscripts of the 18th century. Initial is written (euphonical ) in them, but to be pronounced , e.g. ; only occasionally we find for . Initial [ī] appears as in them (euphonical + the sign ). The existence of the sign at the time that the manuscripts were written, becomes further certain e. g. by the form of the , to transgress, etc. repeatedly used in them, a form which is used also nowadays . [ī], [ē] and [ō] however in vowelled compound-syllables (see § 36) are generally not marked as long by the sign in the manuscripts, e. g.

Cf. also § 41.

[p. 13]

25. The consonants (vyañjana, bīḻakkara) of the alphabet are thirt-yseven in number. Bearing the sign which indicates that they are sounded with the short vowel ಅ (a) after them (see §§ 16. 17. 36), they are the following:

  ka kha ga gha ṅa
Kannaḍa
Present Tamiḻ க்       ங்
Present Malayāḷam
Dēvanāgarī
  ca cha ja jha ña
Kannaḍa
Present Tamiḻ ச்       ஞ்
Present Malayāḷam
Dēvanāgarī
  ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa
Kannaḍa
Present Tamiḻ ட்       ண்
Present Malayāḷam
Dēvanāgarī
  ta tha da dha na
Kannaḍa
Present Tamiḻ த்       ந்
Present Malayāḷam
Dēvanāgarī
  pa pha ba bha ma
Kannaḍa
Present Tamiḻ ப்       ம்
Present Malayāḷam
Dēvanāgarī
  ya ra la va  
Kannaḍa  
Present Tamiḻ ய் ர் ல் வ்  
Present Malayāḷam  
Dēvanāgarī  
  śa ṣa sa ha ḷa
Kannaḍa
Present Tamiḻ ஶ் ஷ் ஸ் ஹ் ள்
Present Malayāḷam
Dēvanāgarī

[p. 14]

 ಪಞ್ಚವರ್ಗ - pañcavarga
 

ಕರ್ಕಶವರ್ಣ
karkaśavarṇa

ಮೃದುವರ್ಣ
mṛduvarṇa

ಅನುನಾಸಿಕ
anunāsika

 

ಅಲ್ಪಪ್ರಾಣ
alpaprāṇa

ಮಹಾಪ್ರಾಣ
mahāprāṇa

ಅಲ್ಪಪ್ರಾಣ
alpaprāṇa

ಮಹಾಪ್ರಾಣ
mahāprāṇa

ಕವರ್ಗ
kavarga

ಕಣ್ಠ್ಯ
kaṇṭhya

ಕ್ [k] ಖ್ [kh] ಗ್ [g] ಘ್ [gh] ಙ್ [ṅ]
ಚವರ್ಗ
cavarga

ತಾಲವ್ಯ
tālavya

ಚ್ [c] ಚ್ನ್ [ch] ಜ್ [j] ಝ್ [jh] ಞ್ [ñ]
ಟವರ್ಗ
ṭavarga

ಮೂರ್ಧಯ
mūrdhanya

ಟ್ [ṭ] ಠ್ [ṭh] ಡ್ [ḍ] ಢ್ [ḍh] ಣ್ [ṇ]
ತವರ್ಗ
tavarga

ದನ್ತ್ಯ
dantya

ತ್ [t] ಥ್ [th] ದ್ [d] ಧ್ [dh] ನ್ [n]
ಪವರ್ಗ
pavarga

ಓಷ್ಠ್ಯ
ōṣṭhya

ಪ್ [p] ಫ್ [ph] ಬ್ [b] ಭ್ [bh] ಮ್ [m]

26. It will be observed that 25 consonants are horizontally arranged in sets having five letters (pañcaka) in each. Such a set is called a

series or class (varga), and a letter belonging to it a classified letter (vargākṣara, vargīyākṣara).

27. The five classes (pañcavarga), each from their first letter, are distinguished as

The remaining 12 (11) consonants are unclassified (avarga, avargīya).

28. The letters of the first perpendicular column (called vargaprathama or vargaprathamākṣara) are hard, those of the second one (called vargadvitīya or vargadvitīyākṣara) hard and aspirated, those of the third one (called vargatṛtīya or vargatritīyākṣara) soft, those of the fourth one (called vargacaturtha or vargacaturthākṣara) soft and aspirated ; those of the fifth one (called vargapañcama or vargapañcamākṣara) are the particular nasals (anunāsika) of each class, which are used as such when, in combination, they precede a consonant of their respective class; see § 220, and cf. §§ 39. 40.

The difference between hard and soft consonants is not expressed in words in the old Kannaḍa grammars. By the way it may be remarked that modern Kannaḍa grammars call hard ones karkaśavarṇa or paruṣavarṇa, and soft ones mṛduvarṇa, or saraḷavarṇa.

29. Kannaḍa grammars distinguish between consonants with slight breathing or weak aspiration (alpaprāṇa), viz. ಕ್ ಗ್ ಚ್ ಜ್ ಟ್ ಡ್ ತ್ ದ್ ಪ್ ಬ್, and consonants with hard breathing or strong aspiration (mahāprāṇa), viz. ಖ್ ಘ್ ಛ್ ಝ್ ಠ್ ಢ್ ಥ್ ಧ್ ಫ್ ಭ್ ; but practically alpaprāṇa is an unaspirated letter, and mahāprāṇa an aspirated one (see § 218). Nowadays some call an aspirated letter gaṇḍakkara (male letter) and an unaspirated one heṇṇakkara (female letter).

30. In pure Kannaḍa the consonants [ta] and [ṣa] do not occur; they are found only in words borrowed from Saṃskṛta.

31. The letter in parenthesis in § 25 is called kṣaḷa (§ 15) by the grammarian Kēśava. It is, in fact, identical as to form and pronunciation with the kuḷa, as Kēśava terms it, or the true Kannaḍa (§ 15); and it is, therefore, unnecessary to make it a separate letter. It is often used by Kannaḍa people as a substitute for Saṃskṛta , the sound of which in the Saṃskṛta language apparently [p. 15] bears a dubious character for them, one that is neither their [la] nor their [ḷa] ; this is Kēśava's kṣaḷa. Cf. §§ 227. 228.

32. The consonants and have become, at the present period, obsolete (although they are of intrinsic value for Dravidian philology). Already the grammarian Kēśava had to state in which words the was used according to previous authors (see § 233). In bygone times was occasionally changed into ರ್ (see § 236), occasionally into ಳ್, occasionally into the letter which it preceded ; in the mediaeval dialect and nowadays it is as a rule represented by ಳ್ (see § 228), is exceptionally converted into a following letter or disappears also altogether 1,

, in the modern dialect,  appears as ರ್ or as a double ರ್ (ರ್ರ್ ). and   are up to this time in common use among the Tamiḻ, Malayāḷa and Baḍaga people; occurs still in the present Telugu (see § 3). The letter appears still in Kannaḍa literature of the 18th century.

In the course of this work the ancient original forms have been retained.

1 Some historical dates regarding the (based chiefly on the very valuable inscriptions or śāsanas published by Dr. Fleet in the Indian Antiquary are the following (cf. § 109).

[p. 16]

33. The

are the eight places (sthāna, tāṇa) or organs of the letters.

The letters pronounced from the throat are guttural (kaṇṭhya) ; they are [a] [ā] [ka] [kha] [ga] [gha] ಙ್ [ṅa]

Those formed by means of the palate are palatal (tālavya); they are [i] [ಈ [ī] [e]] [ē] [ai] [ca] [cha] [ja] [jha] ಞ [ña] ಯ [ya] ಶ [śa] (ಏ and ಐ have been called also kaṇṭhya-tālavya).

Those coming from the head are cerebral (mūrdhanya); they are [ṛ][][ṭa][ṭha][ḍa][ḍha] ಣ [ṇa] ರ [ra] [ṣa] (sometimes these letters are called lingual).

The letters formed by the aid of the teeth are dental (dantya); they are [ḷ] [] [ta] [tha] [da] [dha] [na] [ḷa].

Those pronounced with the lips are labial (ōṣṭhya) ; they are [u] [ū] [ [o]] [ō] [au] [pa] [pha] [ba] [bha] [ma] [va] ; (sometimes [ō], [au] are called kaṇṭhōṣṭhya, and [va] has been called dantōṣṭhya).

The letters uttered through the nose are nasal (anunāsika, nāsikya) ; they are ಙ ಞ ಣ ನ ಮ ಂ; (ಂ has been called also kaṇṭhya-nāsikya).

The letters [ya] [la] [va] (called semi-vowels) are not nasal (ananunāsika, niranunāsika) and, under certain circumstances, nasal (anunāsika, see § 219); there is no mark in Kannaḍa to show the difference.

The letter pronounced in the chest or pectoral letter (urasya) is [ḥ] .

That uttered from the root of the tongue or the tongue-root sibilant (jihvāmūliya) is .

When two consonants are produced in the same place or by the same organs, they are called ekasthāni (see §§ 238. 239).

34. The labial sibilant (or aspirate) is called upadhmānīya, i. e. a letter that is to be pronounced with a forcing out of breath; it only occurs before the consonants and .

The nasal is called anusvāra or after-sound, as it always belongs to a preceding vowel; from its form that in Saṃskṛta is a dot, it is called bindu, and from its form in Kannaḍa where it is represented by a circle or cipher, it is called śūnya or sonne; it is a substitute for a nasal letter, and when it does not stand at the end of a word (where it is pronounced like the English m, cf. § 215, 8), its sound depends on the following consonant (see under letter ಂ in §§ 17; 39. 40).

The sibilant (or aspirate) is called visarga or visarjanīya either from its being pronounced with a full emission of breath or from its liability to be rejected; if followed by another letter, it is frequently changed and occasionally dropped.

The tongue-root [p. 17] sibilant (or aspirate;) jivhāmūliya can only stand before the consonants [ka] and [kha].

35. The śūnya (sonne or bindu) and visarga are semi-vowels (svarāṅga) and semi-consonants (vyañjanāṅga). They and the upadhmānīya and jihvāmūliya are so to say semi-letters, and as such form the 4 so-called yōgavāha letters, i. e. letters always appearing in connection with, or depending on, others.

Visarga, upadhmānīya and jihvāmūliya do not occur in pure Kannaḍa, but are used only in words borrowed from Saṃskṛta.

36. As has been stated in §§ 16 and 25 the crested consonants (including [kha] [ṅa] [ña] [ṭa] [ṇa] [ba] [la] ) are always sounded with the short vowel (a) after them. When any of the secondary forms of the vowels given in § 24 is united with the consonants to form vowelled compound-syllables, the consonants partly retain the shape they have when the vowel (a) is sounded after them, but mostly lose their talekaṭṭu or crest. Here follows a tabular view of them:

When the union has taken place, the vowels, like the short (a), are pronounced after the consonants to which they are attached.

37. In the Southern Mahratta country the vowelled compound-syllables are called kā-guṇitākṣara, i. e. syllables that are multiplied or increased in number after the manner of kā, this being the first of them ; and a series of them is called baḷḷi. In writing and reading the series of the kā-guṇita-syllables it is customary to place the consonant after which the short (a) is sounded, at the beginning of each series.

A table exhibiting the union of vowels with consonants is given on the following- two pages :

[p. 189]

 

[Encoded in Unicode:

 
a

ā

i

ī

u

ū


e

ē

ai

o

ō

au
ಅಂ
aṃ
ಅಃ
aḥ
ಕ್ k ಕಾ ಕಿ ಕೀ ಕು ಕೂ ಕೃ ಕೆ ಕೇ ಕೈ ಕೊ ಕೋ ಕೌ ಕಂ ಕಃ
ಖ್ kh ಖಾ ಖಿ ಖೀ ಖು ಖೂ ಖೃ ಖೆ ಖೇ ಖೈ ಖೊ ಖೋ ಖೌ ಖಂ ಖಃ
ಗ್ g ಗಾ ಗಿ ಗೀ ಗು ಗೂ ಗೃ ಗೆ ಗೇ ಗೈ ಗೊ ಗೋ ಗೌ ಗಂ ಗಃ
ಘ್ gh ಘಾ ಘಿ ಘೀ ಘು ಘೂ ಘೃ ಘೆ ಘೇ ಘೈ ಘೊ ಘೋ ಘೌ ಘಂ ಘಃ
ಙ್ ṅ ಙಾ ಙಿ ಙೀ ಙು ಙೂ ಙೃ ಙೆ ಙೇ ಙೈ ಙೊ ಙೋ ಙೌ ಙಂ ಙಃ
ಚ್ c ಚಾ ಚಿ ಚೀ ಚು ಚೂ ಚೃ ಚೆ ಚೇ ಚೈ ಚೊ ಚೋ ಚೌ ಚಂ ಚಃ
ಛ್ ch ಛಾ ಛಿ ಛೀ ಛು ಛೂ ಛೃ ಛೆ ಛೇ ಛೈ ಛೊ ಛೋ ಛೌ ಛಂ ಛಃ
ಜ್ j ಜಾ ಜಿ ಜೀ ಜು ಜೂ ಜೃ ಜೆ ಜೇ ಜೈ ಜೊ ಜೋ ಜೌ ಜಂ ಜಃ
ಝ್ jh ಝಾ ಝಿ ಝೀ ಝು ಝೂ ಝೃ ಝೆ ಝೇ ಝೈ ಝೊ ಝೋ ಝೌ ಝಂ ಝಃ
ಞ್ ñ ಞಾ ಞಿ ಞೀ ಞು ಞೂ ಞೃ ಞೆ ಞೇ ಞೈ ಞೊ ಞೋ ಞೌ ಞಂ ಞಃ
ಟ್ ṭ ತಾ ತಿ ತೀ ತು ತೂ ತೃ ತೆ ತೇ ತೈ ತೊ ತೋ ತೌ ತಂ ತಃ
ಠ್ ṭh ಥಾ ಥಿ ಥೀ ಥು ಥೂ ಥೃ ಥೆ ಥೇ ಥೈ ಥೊ ಥೋ ಥೌ ಥಂ ಥಃ
ಡ್ ḍ ದಾ ದಿ ದೀ ದು ದೂ ದೃ ದೆ ದೇ ದೈ ದೊ ದೋ ದೌ ದಂ ದಃ
ಢ್ ḍh ಧಾ ಧಿ ಧೀ ಧು ಧೂ ಧೃ ಧೆ ಧೇ ಧೈ ಧೊ ಧೋ ಧೌ ಧಂ ಧಃ
ಣ್ ṇ ನಾ ನಿ ನೀ ನು ನೂ ನೃ ನೆ ನೇ ನೈ ನೊ ನೋ ನೌ ನಂ ನಃ
ತ್ t ಟಾ ಟಿ ಟೀ ಟು ಟೂ ಟೃ ಟೆ ಟೇ ಟೈ ಟೊ ಟೋ ಟೌ ಟಂ ಟಃ
ಥ್ th ಠಾ ಠಿ ಠೀ ಠು ಠೂ ಠೃ ಠೆ ಠೇ ಠೈ ಠೊ ಠೋ ಠೌ ಠಂ ಠಃ
ದ್ d ಡಾ ಡಿ ಡೀ ಡು ಡೂ ಡೃ ಡೆ ಡೇ ಡೈ ಡೊ ಡೋ ಡೌ ಡಂ ಡಃ
ಢ್ dh ಢಾ ಢಿ ಢೀ ಢು ಢೂ ಢೃ ಢೆ ಢೇ ಢೈ ಢೊ ಢೋ ಢೌ ಢಂ ಢಃ
ನ್ n ಣಾ ಣಿ ಣೀ ಣು ಣೂ ಣೃ ಣೆ ಣೇ ಣೈ ಣೊ ಣೋ ಣೌ ಣಂ ಣಃ
ಪ್ p ಪಾ ಪಿ ಪೀ ಪು ಪೂ ಪೃ ಪೆ ಪೇ ಪೈ ಪೊ ಪೋ ಪೌ ಪಂ ಪಃ
ಫ್ ph ಫಾ ಫಿ ಫೀ ಫು ಫೂ ಫೃ ಫೆ ಫೇ ಫೈ ಫೊ ಫೋ ಫೌ ಫಂ ಫಃ
ಬ್ b ಬಾ ಬಿ ಬೀ ಬು ಬೂ ಬೃ ಬೆ ಬೇ ಬೈ ಬೊ ಬೋ ಬೌ ಬಂ ಬಃ
ಭ್ bh ಭಾ ಭಿ ಭೀ ಭು ಭೂ ಭೃ ಭೆ ಭೇ ಭೈ ಭೊ ಭೋ ಭೌ ಭಂ ಭಃ
ಮ್ m ಮಾ ಮಿ ಮೀ ಮು ಮೂ ಮೃ ಮೆ ಮೇ ಮೈ ಮೊ ಮೋ ಮೌ ಮಂ ಮಃ
ಯ್ y ಯಾ ಯಿ ಯೀ ಯು ಯೂ ಯೃ ಯೆ ಯೇ ಯೈ ಯೊ ಯೋ ಯೌ ಯಂ ಯಃ
ರ್ r ರಾ ರಿ ರೀ ರು ರೂ ರೃ ರೆ ರೇ ರೈ ರೊ ರೋ ರೌ ರಂ ರಃ
ಲ್ l ಲಾ ಲಿ ಲೀ ಲು ಲೂ ಲೃ ಲೆ ಲೇ ಲೈ ಲೊ ಲೋ ಲೌ ಲಂ ಲಃ
ವ್ v ವಾ ವಿ ವೀ ವು ವೂ ವೃ ವೆ ವೇ ವೈ ವೊ ವೋ ವೌ ವಂ ವಃ
ಶ್ ś ಶಾ ಶಿ ಶೀ ಶು ಶೂ ಶೃ ಶೆ ಶೇ ಶೈ ಶೊ ಶೋ ಶೌ ಶಂ ಶಃ
ಷ್ ṣ ಷಾ ಷಿ ಷೀ ಷು ಷೂ ಷೃ ಷೆ ಷೇ ಷೈ ಷೊ ಷೋ ಷೌ ಷಂ ಷಃ
ಸ್ s ಸಾ ಸಿ ಸೀ ಸು ಸೂ ಸೃ ಸೆ ಸೇ ಸೈ ಸೊ ಸೋ ಸೌ ಸಂ ಸಃ
ಹ್ h ಹಾ ಹಿ ಹೀ ಹು ಹೂ ಹೃ ಹೆ ಹೇ ಹೈ ಹೊ ಹೋ ಹೌ ಹಂ ಹಃ
ಳ್ ḷ ಳಾ ಳಿ ಳೀ ಳು ಳೂ ಳೃ ಳೆ ಳೇ ಳೈ ಳೊ ಳೋ ಳೌ ಳಂ ಳಃ

]

[p. 20]

38. If a consonant is followed immediately by another consonant or by more than one, the two or more consonants are written in one group (saṃyōga), and thus double or compound consonants (dvitvākṣara, ottakkara, daḍḍa, daḍḍakkara) are formed (cf. §§ 20. 240).

When two consonants are compounded, the latter consonant is written underneath the former one or is subscribed; when three consonants are united in one group, the third is written underneath the second one; and when four are compounded, the fourth is subscribed to the third. In true Kannada a combination of more than two consonants does not occur.

In reading, the upper consonant that is crested (including [kha] [ṅa] [ña] [ṭa] [ṇa] [ba] [la] § 36) is pronounced like a half consonant, and the short vowel (a) is sounded with the lower consonant; if three

consonants are compounded, the second one too is pronounced like a half consonant, and the short vowel (a) is sounded with the lowest one; and so on.

39. The subscribed consonants, as a rule, have the uncrested shape that is used for the union of Consonants with vowels (§ 36); but in the case of seven letters the shape is different,

The following are some examples of double and compound consonants:

[Encoded in Unicode

ಕ್ಕ kka, ಕ್ಖ kkha,
ಕ್ಚ kca, ಕ್ಛ kcha,
ಕ್ತ kta, ಕ್ತ್ಯ ktya, ಕ್ತ್ರ ktra, ಕ್ತ್ರ್ಯ ktrya, ಕ್ತ್ವ ktva,
ಕ್ನ kna, ಕ್ನ್ಯ knya,
ಕ್ಮ kma,
ಕ್ಯ kya,
ಕ್ರ kra, ಕ್ರ್ಯ krya,
ಕ್ಲ kla,
ಕ್ವ kva, ಕ್ವ್ಯ kvya,
ಕ್ಷ kṣa, ಕ್ಷ್ಮ kṣma, ಕ್ಷ್ಯ kṣya, ಕ್ಷ್ವ kṣva

ಖ್ಯ khya

ಗ್ಗ gga

ಘ್ನ ghna

ಙ್ಕ ṅka

ಚ್ಚ cca

ಜ್ಜ jja, ಜ್ಞ jña

ಞ್ಚ ñca

ಟ್ಟ ṭṭa, ಟ್ಣ ṭṇa

ಣ್ಡ ṇḍa, ಣ್ಡ್ರ್ಯ ṇḍrya

ತ್ಕ tka, ತ್ತ tta, ತ್ಥ ttha, ತ್ನ tna

ಪ್ಪ ppa

ಬ್ಭ bbha

ಭ್ಯ  bhya

ಮ್ಪ mpa, ಮ್ಬ mba, ಮ್ಮ mma, ಮ್ರ mra, ಮ್ಲ mla

ಯ್ಯ yya

ರ್ಕ rka, ರ್ತ rta

ಲ್ಪ lpa

ವ್ವ vva

ಶ್ಚ śca

ಷ್ಟ ṣṭa, ಷ್ಟ್ರ್ಯ ṣṭrya

ಸ್ಕ ska, ಸ್ತ sta, ಸ್ತ್ರ stra, ಸ್ಥ stha, ಸ್ಮ sma

ಹ್ನ hna ]

[p. 21]

40. If one of the secondary forms of the vowels (§ 24) is to form a part of a compound consonant, it is attached to the upper consonant. In reading, it is sounded after the lower consonant, or if more than two are compounded, after the lowest one, just as the short vowel of § 38.

The following instances may be given, in which also the way of attaching the vowels appears in case the sonne represents an upper nasal ( 39) :

ಅಕ್ಕಿ akki, ಅಪ್ಪಿ appi, ಅಪ್ಪು appu, ಅಮ್ಮೆ or ಅಂಮೆ amme, ಇನ್ದು or ಇಂದು indu, ಇಮ್ಬು or ಇಂಬು imbu, ಇರ್ಮೆ irme, ಟ್ಟಿ oṭṭi, ಣ್ತೆ or ತೆ oṇṭe, ಕಙ್ಕಿ or ಕಂಕಿ kaṅki, ಕಞ್ಚಿ or ಕಂಚಿ kaṇci, ಕುಕ್ಷಿ kukṣi, ಕುನ್ತಿ or ಕುಂತಿ kunti, ಕೇಳ್ದು kēḷdu, ತನ್ಡೆ or ತಂಡೆ tande, ಬಣ್ಡಿ or ಬಂಡಿ baṇḍi, ಸ್ತ್ರೀ strī, ಸ್ತೋತ್ರ stōtra, ಸ್ಥಾನ sthāna, ಹೊನ್ನು or ಹೊಂನು honnu.

See § 220.

41.

Many Kannada people pronounce and write the initial vowels [i] [ī] [u] [ū] [ē] [ē] [o] [o] ungrammatically, prefixing ಯ್ [y] to [i] [ī] [ē] [ē] , and ವ್ [v] to [u] [ū] [o] [o], thus: ಯಿ [yi] ಯೀ [yī] ಯೆ [ye] ಯೇ [yē] ; ವು [vu] ವೂ [vū] ವೊ [vo] ವೋ [vō].  Regarding initial [e] they use also, instead of ಯೆ [ye], [ya]. e.g.

Initial [ē] may appear as ಯಾ [yā],

Initial [o], is vulgarly changed into [va],

and [va] into [o],

Cf. also remark under § 24.

42. With the exception of jihvāmūliya, upadhmānīya, anusvāra and visarga, all vowels and consonants (the latter compounded with the talekaṭṭu or with any secondary form of the vowels) are named in four ways:

  1. by simply using their sounds, e.g. [a],[ā], etc., [ka], ಕಾ [kā], etc.;

  2. by adding ಕಾರ [kāra], 'making', to their sounds, e.g. ಅಕಾರ [akāra], ಆಕಾರ [ākāra], ಇಕಾರ [ikāra], ಕಕಾರ [kakāra], ಕಿಕಾರ [kikāra], ಗಕಾರ [gakāra], ತಾಕಾರ [tākāra], ತಿಕಾರ [tikāra], ತೆಕಾರ [tekāra], ನೃಕಾರ [nṛkāra], ನೇಕಾರ [nēkāra], ಲಕಾರ [lakāra], ಸಕಾರ [sakāra]

  3. by adding ತ್ವ [tva] to their sounds, e.g. ಅತ್ವ [atva] ಆತ್ವ [ātva] ಇತ್ವ [itva] ಕತ್ವ [katva] ತತ್ವ [tatva] ರತ್ವ [ratva] ಸಾತ್ವ [satva]

  4.  by adding ವರ್ಣ [varṇa] 'letter', to their sounds, e.g. ಅವರ್ಣ [avarṇa] ಇವರ್ಣ [ivarṇa] ಉವರ್ಣ [uvarṇa] ಋವರ್ಣ [ṛvarṇa]  ವರ್ಣ [evarṇa]

The letter (ರ್,) is generally called ರೇಫ [repha]  ರೇಫೆ [rephe], also when the is a substitute of .

43. The system of punctuation in Kannaḍa manuscripts is the same as the Saṃskṛ ta one, viz. in prose at the end of a sentence the sign | is used, and at the end of a longer sentence, the sign || ; in poetry the sign | is placed at the end of a half verse, and at the end of a verse, the sign ||. (In certain prose writings, as in Dēvarasa's Sānandacaritra, the sign | is put not only at the end of a sentence, but also after single words or a number of words.)

44. The Kannada figures used to express numbers (aṅke, lekka, saṅkhye) or the numerical figures are:

(1), (2), (3), (4), (5), (6), (7), (8), (9), (0)

They have been adopted from the Saṃskṛta, wherein they first appear in the 5th century A. D. The Arabs who borrowed them from the Hindus, introduced them into Europe, where they were called Arabic figures.


To: Appendix: Writing and reading Kannaḍa

To: 3. On roots or verbal themes