Mahavamsa : die große Chronik Sri Lankas

1. Kapitel 1: Buddhas Besuche in Sri Lanka


verfasst von Mahanama

übersetzt und erläutert von Alois Payer

mailto: payer@hdm-stuttgart.de


Zitierweise / cite as:

Mahanama <6. Jhdt n. Chr.>: Mahavamsa : die große Chronik Sri Lankas / übersetzt und erläutert von Alois Payer. -- 1. Kapitel 1: Buddhas Besuche in Sri Lanka -- Fassung vom 2006-06-10. -- URL: http://www.payer.de/mahavamsa/chronik01.htm. -- [Stichwort].

Erstmals publiziert: 2001-05-14

Überarbeitungen: 2006-06-10 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-06-04 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-06-01 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-05-10 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-05-10 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-05-08 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-05-04 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-04-27 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-04-26 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-04-24 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-04-22 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-04-21 [Umstellung auf Unicode!, Ergänzungen]; 2006-04-09 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-04-06 [Ergänzungen und Verbesserungen]; 2006-04-03 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-03-29 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-03-25 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-03-21 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-03-04 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-03-01 [Einfügung des Palitexts]; 2001-05-28 [Hinzufügung einer Abb.]; 2001-05-31  [Hinzufügung von 2 Abb.]; 2001-06-11 [Ergänzungen]; 2001-07-12 [Ergänzungen]

Anlass: Lehrveranstaltungen, Sommersemester 2001, 2006

©opyright: Dieser Text steht der Allgemeinheit zur Verfügung. Eine Verwertung in Publikationen, die über übliche Zitate hinausgeht, bedarf der ausdrücklichen Genehmigung des Übersetzers. Das Copyright für zitierte Texte lieget bei den jeweiligen Rechtsinhabern.

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0. Übersicht



Pālitext: http://wwwṭipitaka.org/tipitaka/e0703n/e0703n-frm.html.-- Zugriff am 2006-02-28 (Offenkundige Fehler oder Missverständnisse wurden stillschweigend verbessert)

Falls Sie die diakritischen Zeichen nicht dargestellt bekommen, installieren Sie eine Schrift mit Diakritika wie z.B. Tahoma.

Die Zahlreichen Zitate aus Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. sind ein Tribut an dieses großartige Werk. Das Gesamtwerk ist online zugänglich unter: http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/dic_idx.html. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-08.


Namo tassa bhagavato arahato sammāsambuddhassa.
Mahāvaṃsapāḷi
Pathamapariccheda

"Verehrung dem Ehrwürdigen, Heiligen, Vollkommen Erwachten"

Der Originaltext1 des Mahāvaṃsa

Erstes Kapitel

Kommentar:

1 Originaltext (pāli):

pāḷi = Text, kanonischer Text, Originaltext im Unterschied zu aṭṭhakathā (Kommenatar) und ṭīkā (Subkommentar)

Zu Pāḷi als Sprachnamen siehe:

Hinüber, Oskar von <1939 - >: Zur Geschichte des Sprachnamens Pāḷi. -- In: Beiträge zur Indienforschung : Ernst Waldschmidt zum 80. Geburtstag gewidmet / [hrsg. vom Museum für Indische Kunst]. --  Berlin : Museum für Indische Kunst, 1977. -- 573 S. : Ill. ; 26 cm. -- (Veröffentlichungen des Museums für Indische Kunst, Berlin ; Bd. 4). -- S. 237 - 246.]


Mahiyaṅgaṇāgamanaṃ

Der Besuch in Mahiyaṅgaṇa


Alle Verse mit Ausnahme des Schlussverses sind im Versmaß vatta = siloka = Śloka abgefasst.

Das metrische Schema ist:

 ̽  ̽  ̽  ̽ ˘ˉˉˉ
 ̽  ̽  ̽  ̽ ˘ˉ˘ˉ

 ̽  ̽  ̽  ̽ ˘ˉˉˉ
 ̽  ̽  ̽  ̽ ˘ˉ˘ˉ

Ausführlich zu Vatta im Pāli siehe:

Warder, A. K. (Anthony Kennedy) <1924 - >: Pali metre : a contribution to the history of Indian literature. -- London : Luzac, 1967. --  XIII, 252 S. -- S. 172 - 201.


1. Vorwort


1.Namassitvāna sambuddhaṃ,
susuddhaṃ suddhavaṃsajaṃ;
mahāvaṃsaṃ pavakkhāmi,
nānānūnādhikārikaṃ.

1. Ich bringe dem vollkommen Erwachten meine Verehrung dar, dem vollkommen Reinen, der aus einem reinen Stammbaum1 (vaṃsa) stammt. Nun verkünde ich die große Chronik (bzw. Chonik der Großen) (Mahāvaṃsa), die vielerlei und ausreichenden Inhalt enthält.

Kommentar:

1 reinen Stammbaum: nämlich dem Buddhavaṃsa, der Linie der 24 früheren Buddhas, s. unten oder: dem Stammbaum Mahāsammata's, Kapitel 2


Abb.: Grundbedeutung von vaṃsa = Internodium von Bambus. Davon abgeleitet die Bedeutungen: "Bambus", "Stammbaum" (aufeinanderfolgende Internodien), "Chronik" (Abfolge von Zeitabschnitten - Zeitinternodien)
(Bambus, Bangalore (ಬೆಂಗಳೂರು), 2005)
[Bildvorlage: usathyan. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/usathyan/20834551/. -- Creative Commons Lizenz. -- Zugriff am 2006-06-10]

Vaṃsatthappakāsinī (S. 31):

Namassitvānā ti vanditvā, paṇametvā; sambuddhan ti: sāmañ ca sammā ca sabbadhammānaṃ buddho ti, sambuddho, taṃ sambuddhaṃ dhammassāmiṃ; yo tekālikānaṃ ñeyyadhammānaṃ sabbākārena sayaṃ sammā ca bujjhitvā sabbaññubhāvaṃ gato, taṃ sabbaññubuddhaṃ munirājaṃ vanditvā ti attho. Susuddhan ti: suṭṭhu parisuddho susuddho, taṃ susuddhaṃ; suddhaṃ parisuddhaṃ accantaparisuddhaṃ arahantaṃ khīṇāsavan ti attho. Accantaniddosavimalena khīṇāsavaguṇena sammanāgatan ti vā attho. Suddhavaṃsajan ti: parisuddhe Okkākavaṃse jāto uppanno ti suddhavaṃsajo, tam suddhavaṃsajaṃ; parisuddhe Okkākavaṃse jātaputtan ti attho. Mahāvaṃsan ti: mahantānaṃ vaṃso tanti paveṇī ti Mahāvaṃso, taṃ Mahāvaṃsaṃ; mahantānaṃ vaṃsaṃ paveṇin ti attho. Pavakkhāmī ti: pakārena vakkhāmi, visesetvā kathayissāmī ti attho. Nānānūnādhikārikan ti: anekehi adhikārehi anūno nānānūnādhikāriko, ta nānānūnādhikārikaṃ; anekehi adhikārehi paripuṇṇaṃ adhikārikan ti attho. Nānānūnādhikārikan ti vā nānādhikārehi paripuṇṇabhūtam adhikārikan ti attho. Dīpagamanādhikārappabhuti vividhādhikāraparipuṇṇam adhikārikan ti ettha adhippāyo.

2.Porāṇehi kato p' eso,
ativitthārito kvaci;
atīva kvaci saṃkhitto,
anekapunaruttako.

2. Die große Chronik (bzw. Chronik der Großen), die von den Alten verfasst worden war, ist an manchen Stellen zu ausführlich, an anderen zu knapp, und enthält vielerlei Wiederholungen.

Vaṃsatthappakāsinī (S. 46f.):

Tattha Porāṇehi kato p' eso Mahāvaṃso porāṇehi pi kato ti sambandho kātabbo. Yo porāṇako Sīhalaṭṭhakathāmahāvaṃso ativitthārādidosasahito, taṃ ativitthārdosarahitaṃ katvā sukhaggahaṇadhāraṇādippakārena yojetvā pavakkhkkhāmī ti iminā adhippāyena. "mayā paṭhamam uddesavasen' eva dassito yo Mahāvaṃso, eso porāṇehi pi kato pakaraṇavasena pi kato vutto sajjito ṭhapito" ti vuttaṃ hoti. Mahāvaṃsaṃ  pavakkhāmī ti attanā paṭiññā katā'anantarttā, "eso" ti samīpavacanaṃ akāsī ti daṭṭhabbo. Kvacī ti katthaci. Eso pana porāṇako Sīhalaṭṭhakathāmahāvaṃso katthaci ṭhāne; vācanāmaggena ativitthārito ti atīva vitthāro kato ti attho. Kvaci saṃkhitto ti  katthaci eso atīva saṃkhitto saṅkhepaṃ katvā vutto ti adhippāyo. Anekapunaruttako ti katthaci anekakkhattuṃ panappunaṃ vutto. Kvacī ti ayaṃ saddo idha pi āharitabbo. Yasmā eso tehi tīhi dosehi abhivajjito sukhagahaṇadhāraṅiyo hoti, tasmā tehi dosehi vajjitaṃ sukhaggahaṇādīhi guṇehi sampannaṃ sutito ca upāgataṃ ahaṃ pavakkhissāmi, taṃ tumhe suṇāthā ti tatiyaṃ catutthañ ca gātham āha.

3. Vajjitaṃ tehi dosehi,
sukhaggahaṇadhāraṇaṃ;
pasādasaṃvegakaraṃ,
sutito ca upāgataṃ.
4. Pasādajanake ṭhāne,
tathā saṃvegakārake;
janayantoa pasādañ ca,
saṃvegañ ca suṇātha taṃ.

a Geiger: janayantā

3. / 4. Hört diese große Chronik (bzw. Chronik der Großen):

Hört sie und lasst dabei in euch Abgeklärtheit bzw. Erschütterung erstehen je nach dem, wie es der betreffenden Stelle entspricht.


Paralleltext im Dīpavaṃsa (I, 1 - 5):

1 Dīpāgamanaṃ buddhassa dhātūnaṃ bodhiyā'gamaṃ, saṅgahāceravādañca dīpamhi sāsanā'gamaṃ,
narindāgamanaṃ vaṃsaṃ 3 kittayissaṃ suṇātha me.
2 Pītipāmojjajananaṃ pasādeyyaṃ manoramaṃ,
anekākārasampannaṃ cittikatvā suṇātha me.
3 Udaggacittā sumanā pahaṭṭhā tuṭṭhamānasā,
niddosaṃ bhadravacanaṃ sakkaccaṃ sampaṭicchatha.
4 Suṇātha sabbe paṇidhāya mānasaṃ
vaṃsaṃ pavakkhāmi paramparāgataṃ,
thutippasathaṃ bahunābhivaṇṇitaṃ
etaṃ hi nānākusumaṃ va ganthitaṃ,
5 Anūpamaṃ vaṃsavaraggavādinaṃ
apubbaṃ anaññaṃ tatha suppakāsitaṃ,
Ariyāgataṃ uttamasabbhi vaṇṇitaṃ
Suṇātha dīpatthuti sādhu sakkataṃ.
"1. I will set forth the history of Buddha's coming to the Island, of the arrival of the relic and of the Bo (branch), of the doctrine of the teachers who made the recensions (of Dhamma and Vinaya), of the propagation of the Faith in the Island, of the arrival of the chief of men (Vijaya); listen. 2. Listen attentively to (the history proclaimed by) me, which inspires joy and delight, which causes serenity and gladdens the mind, which comprises many various forms. 3. With elated minds, satisfied, delighted and joyful, attentively receive the faultless, auspicious discourse. 4. Listen all, giving your minds (to the subject); I will proclaim a history, handed down from generation to generation, highly praised, adorned in many ways, joined together in this (work), just as flowers of various kinds (form a garland). 5. Attend to this incomparable praise of the Island (Ceylon), which dwells upon the most excellent successions (of teachers and kings), which is new and unrivalled and well narrated, which has been handed down by Saints, which is praised by all good men and revered by the holy ones."

[Quelle: Dipavamsa : an ancient historical record / ed. and translated by Hermann Oldenberg [1854 - 1920]. -- 1879. -- S. 117.]


Abb.: Hermann Oldenberg

"Oldenberg, Hermann (1854-1920), Indologe, * in Hamburg, 1878 PDoz. in Berlin, 1889 o. Prof. in Kiel, 1908 in Göttingen. Seine Lebensarbeit galt der älteren indischen Religionsgeschichte, vom Rigveda ( Veden) bis zur Zeit des Pāli-Buddhismus; durch Textausgaben, Übersetzungen und bahnbrechende Untersuchungen hat er die Forschung hervorragend gefördert und durch formvollendete Darstellungen auch weiteren Kreisen nahegebracht.

Außer den Textausgaben des Dīpavamsa (1879), Vinaya Pitaka (5 Bde, 1879-83), Theragāthā (1883) u. den Übers.en in SBE von Vinaya Pitaka (13. 17. 20), 1881-85, Grihya-Sutras (29. 30), 1886-92, Vedic Hymns (46), 1897 sowie der »Reden des Buddha« (1922) sind an philolog. Arbeiten bes. zu nennen: Rigveda, textkrit. u. exeget. Noten, 2 Tle, 1909/12; Zur Gesch. der altind. Prosa, 1919. Eine Entwicklungsgesch. der ind. Religionen von der Mitte des 2. bis zur Mitte des 1. Jt.s v. Chr. geben die vier klassischen Werke: Die Religion des Veda, (1894) 19234; Vorwissenschaftl. Wissenschaft: Die Weltanschauung der Brāhmana-Texte, 1919; Die Lehre der Upanishaden u. die Anfänge des Buddhismus, (1915) 19232; Buddha: sein Leben, seine Lehre, seine Gemeinde, (1881) 195813. Vf. ferner u. a.: Die Lit. des alten Indien, (1903) 19233; Das Mahābhārata, 1922. – Über O.: A. BERTHOLET in: NGW 1920, 53 ff. – H. V. GLASENAPP im Nachwort zu »Buddha«, 195813, 455 ff."

[Quelle: Helmuth v. Glasenapp <1891 - 1963>. -- In: Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart. -- Tübingen : Mohr. -- 3. Aufl. -- Bd. 4. -- 1960. -- Sp. 1620]


2. Der Bodhisatta1


Kommentar:

In diesem Abschnitt wird Sidhatta als Buddha legitimiert und zertifiziert: er hat als Bodhisattva alle Vorbedingungen eines Buddha vollkommen erfüllt. Für Buddhisten gehören die früheren Geburten eines Buddha als Bodhisattva ebenso zu seiner Persönlichkeit wie seine letzte Geburt, in der er ein Buddha wird. Wenn also die bei christlichen Theologen Gegenüberstellung gemacht wird zwischen dem sozial tätigen Jesus (wo war er das eigentlich?) und dem "kontemplativen" Buddha, kann man einfach auf die 10 Parāmitā verweisen, die ein Bodhisattva vollkommen verwirklichen muss. Zu diesen gehören so soziale Tugenden wie Freigebigkeit, Sittlichkeit, Güte und Wahrhaftigkeit.

1 Bodhisatta:

Zur Zeit des Buddha Dīpankara fasst der spätere Buddha Gotama als Brahmane Sumedha, den Entschluss, ein Buddha zu werden. Damit wird er ein Bodhisatta.

Bedingungen, um das Bodhisatta-Gelübde (abhinihāra m.) wirksam auf sich nehmen zu können und sicher zu sein, ein Buddha zu werden:
  1. Es muss ein Mensch sein (kein Gott)
  2. Er muss männlich sein, nicht weiblich
  3. Er muss die Voraussetzungen erfüllen, dass er im betreffenden Leben ein Arahant werden könnte
  4. Zur Zeit des Bodhisatta-Gelübdes (abhinihāra) muss er Asket sein
  5. Es muss einen Buddha geben, dem gegenüber er das Bodhisattagelübde macht
  6. Er muss Versenkungszustände (Jhāna's) usw. verwirklicht haben
  7. Er muss bereit sein, alles zu opfern, selbst sein Leben
  8. Der Entschluss muss ganz fest und unerschütterlich sein
Bestätigung des Bodhisatta-Gelübdes durch den jeweiligen Buddha

Der Buddha, vor dem das Bodhisatta-Gelübde abgelegt wird, schaut in die Zukunft und erklärt ihm Zeitpunkt und Umstände, unter denen der Bodhisatta zum Buddha werden wird. Diese Erklärung (vyākara.na) wird auch von allen zukünftigen Buddhas gemacht, denen der Bodhisatta im Laufe seiner Wiedergeburten begegnen wird.

Vorzüge, die ein Bodhisatta genießt: er wird nicht in 18 ungünstigen Wiedergeburtsformen geboren:
Voraussetzungen, die der Bodhisatta erfüllen muss, bevor er ein Buddha werden kann (buddha-kāraka-dhamma)

Die wichtigste Voraussetzung ist die höchste Verwirklichung der 10 Vollkommenheiten (Pāramitā f., Pāramī f.):

s. Dhammavibhāga II, 10.3.

Geburten, in denen der spätere Buddha Gotama als Bodhisatta die 10 Vollkommenheiten (Pāramitā) verwirklichte:
  Vollkommenheit Geburt als
1. dāna (n.) -- Freigebigkeit
  • *Hase (sasa) (Jātaka Nr 316)
  • Akitti (Jātaka Nr 480)
  • Saṅkha (Jātaka Nr 442)
  • Mahasudassana (Jātaka Nr 95)
  • Nimi (Jātaka Nr 541)
  • Candakumāra (Jātaka Nr 542)
  • Visayha (Jātaka Nr 340)
  • Sivi (Jātaka Nr 499)
  • Vessantara (Jātaka Nr 547)
2. sīla (n.) -- Sittlichkeit
  • *Saṅkhapāla (Jātaka Nr 524)
  • Sīlava (Elephant) (Jātaka Nr 72)
  • Campeyya (Nāga) (Jātaka Nr 506)
  • Bhūridatta (Nāga) (Jātaka Nr 543)
  • Chaddanta (Elephant) (Jātaka Nr 514)
  • Alīnasattu (Jātaka Nr 513)
3. nekkhamma (n.) -- Entsagung
  • *Sutasoma (Jātaka Nr 525)
  • Somanassa (Jātaka Nr 505)
  • Hatthipāla (Jātaka Nr 509)
  • Ayoghara (Jātaka Nr 510)
4. paññā (f.) -- Weisheit
  • *Senaka (Jātaka 402)
  • Vidhura (Jātaka Nr 545)
  • Kuddālapaṇḍita (Jātaka Nr 70)
  • Araka (Jātaka Nr. 169)
  • Mahosadha (Jātaka Nr. 546)
5. viriya (n.) -- Willenskraft, Energie
  • *Mahājanaka (Jātaka Nr. 539)
6. khanti (f.) -- Nachsicht
  • *Khantivādī (Jātaka Nr. 313)
7. sacca (n.) -- Wahrhaftigkeit
  • *Mahāsutasoma (Jātaka Nr. 537)
8. adiṭṭhāna (n.) -- Standfestigkeit (Entschlossenheit)
  • *Mūgapakkha (Temiya) (Jātaka Nr. 538)
9. mettā (f.) -- Güte
  • *Ekarāja (Jātaka Nr. 303)
10. upekkhā (f.) -- Gelassenheit / Gleichmut
  • *Lomahaṃsa (Jātaka Nr. 94)

5. Dīpaṅkarañ hi sambuddhaṃ,
passitvā no jino purā;
lokaṃ dukkhā pamocetuṃ,
bodhāya paṇidhiṃ akā.

5. In der Vorzeit traf unser Eroberer1 den Sambuddha Dīpankara2, da fasste er den Entschluss, ein Buddha zu werden, um die Welt vom Leid zu befreien.

Kommentar:

1 Eroberer (Buddha Gotama), nämlich als Asket Sumedha

"Sumedha. The Bodhisatta in the time of Dīpankara Buddha. He was a very rich brahmin of Amaravatī, and, having left the world, became an ascetic of great power in the Himālaya. While on a visit to Rammma-nagara, he saw people decorating the road for Dīpankara Buddha, and undertook to do one portion of the road himself. The Buddha arrived before his work was finished, and Sumedha lay down on a rut for the Buddha to walk over him. He resolved that he, too, would become a Buddha, and Dīpankara, looking into the future, saw that his wish would come true. This was the beginning of Gotama Buddha's qualification for Enlightenment. J.i.2ff.; DhA.i.68; Bu.ii.5ff.; SNA.i.49; in Chinese Records he is called Megha. The Dvy. (p.247) calls him Sumati."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s.v.]

2 Dīpaṅkara


Abb.: Sumegha (Sumedha) spreading his hair across the ground to protect Dipankara Buddha's feet from the mud , Shotorak, Afghanistan
[Bildquelle: http://kaladarshan.arts.ohio-state.edu/loststolen/Afghan/stone/A1162.html. -- Zugriff am 2006-03-03]

Buddha Dīpaṅkara lebte vor seinem Gang in die Heimlosigkeit 10000 Jahre als Laie, als Buddha wurde er immer von 84000 Arahants begleitet, er war 80 Hand groß, wurde 100000 Jahre alt und sein Reliquienstūpa war 36 Yojana hoch (ca. 400 km). Nach seinem Dahinscheiden hatte seine Lehre noch 100000 Jahre Bestand.

Vaṃsatthappakāsinī (S. 52f.):

Tattha, No jino purā Dīpaṅkaraṃ hi sambuddhaṃ passitvā lokaṃ dukkhā pamocetuṃ bodhāya panidhiṃ akā ti sambandho kātabbo. Dīpaṅkarañ hi sambuddhaṃ passitvā ti ettha Dīpaṅkaraṃ hi nāma sabbaññuṃ taṃ abhimukham āgataṃ disvā ti attho. No ti amhākaṃ; jino ti vijitakilesasaṅgāmo dhammarājā, parājitakilesasattu Satthā vā. Atha vā, sāvakapaccekabhūmiyālayaṃ viddhaṃsetvā sabbaññutaguṇena vuḍḍhibhāvapatto guṇavisiṭṭho jeṭṭho ti attho. Purā ti atikkantakāle; lokan ti lujjanapalujjanasabhāvaṃ sattalokan ti attho. So hi lujjanapalujjanaṭṭhena loko ti vuccati. Khaṇabhaṅgavasena lujjanasabhāvena cutibhaṅgavasena palujjanasabhāvena loko nāmā ti udāharīyatī ti adippāyo.

Dukkhā ti bhavadukkhā, saṃsāradukkhā ti attho. Pamocetun ti tato rakkhitagopitaṃ katvā mocanatthāyā ti attho. Nānādhimuttikañ ca sattalokaṃ adhimuttānurūpehi bahūhi vividhadesanāyappakārehi vinetvā dukkhā mocanatthāyā ti attho. Bodhāyā ti Buddhatthāya, Buddhabhāvatthāya;  paṇidhin ti patthanaṃ, abhinīhāraṃ, daḷhasamādānan ti attho. Atha vā, bodhāya paṇidhiṃ akā sabbaññutañāṇamhi nikantiṃ cittaṭṭhapanaṃ akāsī ti attho.  Jātijarābyādhimaraṇadīhi sambhaggavibhaggaṃ bhavābhavesu viparivattamānaṃ lokaṃ disvā karuṇāya kampitahadayo tehi dukkhehi satte samuddharitukāmo  Buddhabhāvatthāya abhinīhāraṃ  akāsi ti ettha adhippāyo.

6. Tato tañ ceva sambuddhaṃ,
Koṇḍaññaṃ Maṅgalaṃ muniṃ;
Sumanaṃ Revataṃ buddhaṃ,
Sobhitañ ca mahāmuniṃ.
7. Anomadassiṃ sambuddhaṃ,
Padumaṃ Nāradaṃ jinaṃ;
Padumuttarasambuddhaṃ,
Sumedhañ ca tathāgataṃ.
8. Sujātaṃ Piyadassiñ ca,
Atthadassiñ ca nāyakaṃ;
Dhammadassiñ ca Siddhatthaṃ,
Tissaṃ Phussajinaṃa tathā.
9. Vipassiṃ Sikhīsambuddhaṃ,
sambuddhaṃ Vessabhuṃ vibhuṃ;
Kakusandhañ ca sambuddhaṃ,
Koṇāgamanam eva ca.
10. Kassapaṃ sugatañ ca’meb,
sambuddhe catuvīsati;
ārādhetvā mahāvīro,
tehi bodhāya byākatoc.

a Geiger: Phussaṃ jinaṃ
b Geiger: ceme
c Geiger: vyākato

6. - 10. Dann gewann der große Held die Zuneigung von 24 Sambuddhas und wurde von ihnen als zukünftiger Buddha erklärt. Diese 24 Buddhas waren:

  1. dieser Sambuddha Dīpankara1
  2. Kodañña
  3. der Weise Mangala
  4. Sumana
  5. der Buddha Revata
  6. Sobhita, der große Weise
  7. der Sambuddha Anomadassi
  8. Paduma
  9. der Eroberer Nārada
  10. der Sambuddha Padumuttara
  11. der Wahrheitsfinder Sumedha
  12. Sujāta
  13. Piyadassī
  14. der Führer Atthadassī
  15. Dhammadassī
  16. Siddhattha
  17. Tissa
  18. der Eroberer Phussa1
  19. Vipassī [91. Weltzeitalter vor unserem Weltzeitalter]
  20. der Sambuddha Sikhī [31. Weltzeitalter vor unserem Weltzeitalter]
  21. der mächtige Sambuddha Vessabhū [31. Weltzeitalter vor unserem Weltzeitalter]
  22. der Sambuddha Kakusandha [jetziges Weltzeitalter]
  23. Konāgamana [jetziges Weltzeitalter]
  24. der Sugata Kassapa [jetziges Weltzeitalter]

Kommentar:

1 Dīpankara usw.

 


Abb.: Phussa, Vipassī, Sikhī, Vessabhū, Kakusandha, Konāgamana, Kassapa, Gotama in Ajanta
[Bildquelle: http://www.ignca.nic.in/jatakint.htm. -- Zugriff am 2006-03-03]

In den älteren kanonischen Schriften werden nur die letzten sechs früheren Buddhas (ab Vipassī) erwähnt (s. Mahāpadānasutta : Dīghanikāya II ,2 ff.). Die 24 Buddhas werden ausführlich behandelt im Buddhavaṃsa, einer kanonischen Schrift des Khuddakanikāya.

"Eines der weniger umfangreichen Bücher des Khuddakanikāya ist der Buddhavaṃsa. Das sind poetische Legenden von den 24 Buddhas, die in den letzten 12 Weltzeitaltern (Kalpas) dem Gotama Buddha vorausgegangen sein sollen. Nach einem einleitenden Kapitel wird jedem der 24 früheren Buddhas ein Kapitel gewidmet. In ziemlich trockener Weise wird von jedem einzelnen Buddha erzählt, wie er das »Rad der Religion« in Bewegung setzte und wie — mit unwesentlichen Abweichungen — die Hauptereignisse im Leben des Gotama Buddha sich bei jedem einzelnen der früheren Buddhas abspielten. Die Erzählung wird dem Gotama Buddha selbst in den Mund gelegt, und er berichtet, in der ersten Person sprechend, wer er selbst unter jedem der vorhergehenden Buddhas gewesen, wie er den Buddha verehrt habe und wie seine eigene künftige Buddhaschaft von dem damaligen Buddha vorhergesagt worden sei. Etwas schwungvoller und poetischer ist nur das zweite Kapitel, das von Dīpankara, dem ersten Buddha, handelt:

Gotama Buddha war damals ein reicher Brahmane, namens Sumedha, und er erzählt in Versen (7—27), die an die Theragāthās erinnern, wie er eines Tages Ekel vor der Welt empfunden, wie er den elenden Körper, als wäre er Unrat, von sich geworfen und sich in eine Einsiedelei im Himālaya zurückgezogen habe. Damals hielt gerade der Buddha Dīpankara seinen Eroberungszug durch die Welt, und Menschen und Götter brachten ihm Verehrung dar. Auch Sumedha, der Einsiedler, kommt herbei, löst an einer sumpfigen Stelle sein geflochtenes Haar auf, breitet es, ebenso wie sein Bastgewand und seinen Fellmantel, auf der schmutzigen Erde aus und legt sich mit dem Gesicht nach abwärts nieder, von dem Wunsche beseelt, dass der erhabene Buddha Dīpankara mit seiner Jüngerschar über ihn hinwegschreite, ohne dass ihre Füße von dem Schlamme benetzt werden. Auf dem Boden liegend, fasst er den Entschluss, dereinst ein Buddha zu werden und der Welt Erlösung zu bringen. Dīpankara kommt heran und prophezeit die künftige Größe des Sumedha. Die Bewohner der zehntausend Welten erheben ein Jubelgeschrei und Zeichen und Wunder geschehen, wie das immer der Fall ist, wenn ein künftiger Buddha vorhergesagt wird. Sumedha aber fasst den Entschluss, alle zehn Vollkommenheiten (Pāramitās) in sich zu verwirklichen, um die Vorbedingungen für künftige Buddhaschaft zu erfüllen.

So ist dieses Stück eigentlich eine Art Vorgeschichte zur Selbstbiographie, welche dann Gotama Buddha im 26. Kapitel gibt, indem er die Hauptereignisse seines letzten Erdendaseins in 25 Versen kurz zusammenfasst. Eine Liste der Buddhas bis auf Meteyya, den künftigen Buddha, und ein Bericht über die Verteilung der Buddhareliquien bilden den Schluss des Buches.

Der Kommentator des Buddhavamsa sagt, das Werk sei von Gotama Buddha selbst verkündet und vorgetragen, durch eine ununterbrochene Reihe von Theras bis zur Zeit des dritten Konzils und ebenso seit damals durch eine ununterbrochene Reihe von Lehrern und Schülern weiter überliefert worden. Da die älteren Texte nur 6 Vorgänger Gotamas kennen, werden wir dem Kommentator das nicht glauben, sondern den Buddhavamsa mit zu den jüngsten Erzeugnissen der kanonischen Pāliliteratur rechnen müssen. Er ist ja auch voll von jener Buddhaverehrung und Buddhavergöttlichung, die den ältesten Tipitakatexten fremd ist, aber in der buddhistischen Sanskritlitteratur, namentlich der des Mahāyāna, in voller Blüte steht."

[Quelle: Winternitz, Moriz <1863 - 1937>: Geschichte der indischen Litteratur. --  Leipzig : Amelung. -- Band 2: Die buddhistische Literatur und die heiligen Texte der Jainas. -- 1920. -- (Die Litteraturen des Ostens in Einzeldarstellungen ; 9,2). -- S. 129 - 131.]


Abb.: Oberster Architrav des Osttors des Stūpa von Sanchi, Vorderseite, 2. Jhdt. v. Chr.
[Bildquelle: Führungsblatt 600a / Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin, ©1983]

Auch am Osttor des Stūpa von Sanchi sind auf dem obersten Architrav die sieben Buddhas ab Vipassī wiedergegeben, dargestellt durch ihre Stūpas bzw. ihre jeweiligen Bodhi-Bäume (eine Abformung dieses Tors steht im Hof des Museums für Indische Kunst, Berlin).


Abb.: Shwe Dagon Pagode, 1825
[Bildquelle. Wikipedia]

In der Shwe Dagon Pagode in Rangoon (Burma) werden als Reliquien verehrt:

"Legend has it that Tapussa and Bhallika brought the original sacred hairs of Buddha from India across the ocean. On their way to Myanmar, the two brothers were relieved of 2 hairs by the King of Ajetta, and 2 more were robbed by the King of Nagas, who transformed himself into the likness of a human being and boarded the ship at night.

On arrival in Myanmar, a great festival was celebrated in honour of the sacred hairs for several days. Sakka, Lord of the Heaven, came down to earth and assisted in the selection of the site; but he had to invoke the aid of the 4 spirits: Sule, Amyitha, Yawhani, and Dakkhina.

Relices of the 3 proceeding Buddhas were excavated under their direction in one spot, and were buried there again along with the sacred hairs brought by the 2 brothers. Before placing them in the vault dug on the hill, King Okkalapa opened the casket containing the hairs of instead of 4, 8 hairs flew up to the height of seven palm trees emitting rays of variegated hues with such a dazzle that the dumb could speak, the deaf could hear, and the lame could walk, and a rain of jewels fell knee-deep. A golden stone slab was placed on top of the vault by Sakka and on it was erected a golden pagoda enclosed within silver, tin, copper, lead, marble, and iron brick pagodas up to a height of 66 feet. "

[Quelle: http://www.myanmartravelinformation.com/mti-yangon/shwedagon-history.htm. -- Zugriff am 2006-03-03]

"Buddha

A generic name, an appellative -  but not a proper name - given to one who has attained Enlightenment (na mātarā katam, na pitarā katam – vimokkhantikam etam buddhānam bhagavantānam bodhiyā mūle ... paññatti, MNid.458; Ps.i.174) a man superior to all other beings, human and divine, by his knowledge of the Truth (Dhamma).

The texts mention two kinds of Buddha: viz.,

  • Pacceka Buddhas - i.e., Buddhas who also attain to complete Enlightenment but do not preach the way of deliverance to the world; and
  • Sammāsambuddhas, who are omniscient and are teachers of Nibbāna (Satthāro).

The Commentaries, however (e.g., SA.i.20; AA.i.65) make mention of four classes of Buddha:

  • Sabaññu-Buddhā
  • Pacceka Buddhā
  • Catusacca Buddhā
  • Suta Buddhā

All arahants (khīnāsavā) are called Catusacca Buddhā and all learned men Bahussuta Buddhā. A Pacceka Buddha practises the ten perfections (pāramitā) for two asankheyyas and one hundred thousand kappas, a Sabbañu Buddha practises it for one hundred thousand kappas and four or eight or sixteen asankheyyas, as the case may be (see below).

Seven Sabbaññu Buddhas are mentioned in the earlier books; these are

  • Vīpassī
  • Sikhī
  • Vessabhū
  • Kakusandha
  • Konāgamana
  • Kassapa
  • Gotama

E.g., D.ii.5f.; S.ii.5f.; cp. Thag.491; J.ii.147; they are also mentioned at Vin.ii.110, in an old formula against snake bites. Beal (Catena, p. 159) says these are given in the Chinese Pātimokkha. They are also found in the Sayambhū Purāna (Mitra, Skt. Buddhist Lit. of Nepal, p. 249).

This number is increased in the later books. The Buddhavamsa contains detailed particulars of twenty five Buddhas, including the last, Gotama, the first twenty four being those who prophesied Gotama's appearance in the world. They are the predecessors of Vipassī, etc., and are the following:

  • Dīpankara, Kondañña, Mangala, Sumana, Revata, Sobhita, Anomadassī, Paduma, Nārada, Padumuttara, Sumedha, Sujāta, Piyadassī, Atthadassī, Dhammadassī, Siddhattha, Tissa and Phussa.

The same poem, in its twenty seventh chapter, mentions three other Buddhas -  Tanhankara, Medhankara and Saranankara -  who appeared in the world before Dīpankara.

The Lalitavistara has a list of fifty four Buddhas and the Mahāvastu of more than a hundred. The Cakkavatti Sīhanāda Sutta (D.iii.75ff ) gives particulars of Metteyya Buddha who will be born in the world during the present kappa. The Anāgatavamsa gives a detailed account of him. Some MSS. of that poem (J.P.T.S. 1886, p. 37) mention the names of ten future Buddhas, all of whom met Gotama who prophesied about them. These are Metteyya, Uttama, Rāma, Pasenadi Kosala, Abhibhū, Dīghasonī, Sankacca, Subha, Todeyya, Nālāgiripalaleyya (sic).

The Mahāpadāna Sutta (D.ii.5f ) which mentions the seven Buddhas gives particulars of each under eleven heads (paricchedā) - 

  • the kappa in which he is born,
  • his social rank (jāti),
  • his family (gotta),
  • length of life at that epoch (āyu),
  • the tree under which he attains Enlightenment (bodhi),
  • the names of his two chief disciples (sāvakayuga),
  • the numbers present at the assemblies of arahants held by him (sāvakasannipāta),
  • the name of his personal attendant (upatthākabhikkhu),
  • the names of his father and mother and of his birthplace.

The Commentary (DA.ii.422ff) adds to these other particulars - 

  • the names of his son and his wife before his Renunciation,
  • the conveyance (yāna) in which he leaves the world,
  • the monastery in which his Gandhakuti was placed,
  • the amount of money paid for its purchase,
  • the site of the monastery, and the name of his chief lay patron.

In the case of Gotama, the further fact is stated that on the day of his birth there appeared also in the world Rāhulamātā, Ānanda, Kanthaka, Nidhikumbhi (Treasure Trove), the Mahābodhi and Kāludāyī.

Gotama was conceived under the asterism (nakkhatta) of Uttarāsālha, under which asterism he also made his Renunciation (Da.ii425), preached his first sermon and performed the Twin Miracle. Under the asterism of Visākha he was born, attained Enlightenment and died; under that of Māgha he held his first assembly of arahants and decided to die; under Assayuja he descended from Tāvatimsa.

The Buddhavamsa Commentary says (BuA.2f) that in the Buddhavamsa particulars of each Buddha are given under twenty two heads, the additional heads being the details of the first sermon, the numbers of those attaining realization of truth (abhisamaya) at each assembly, the names of the two chief women disciples, the aura of the Buddha's body (ramsi), the height of his body, the name of the Bodhisatta (who was to become Gotama Buddha), the prophecy concerning him, his exertions (padhāna) and the details of each Buddha's death. The Commentary also says that mention must be made of the time each Buddha lived as a householder, the names of the palaces he occupied, the number of his dancing women, the names of his chief wife, and his son, his conveyance, his renunciation, his practice of austerities, his patrons and his monastery.

There are eight particulars in which the Buddhas differ from each other (atthavemattāni). These are length of life in the epoch in which each is born, the height of his body, his social rank (some are born as khattiyas, others as brahmins), the length of his austerities, the aura of his body (thus, in the case of Mangala, his aura spread throughout the ten thousand world systems, while that of Gotama extended only one fathom; - but when he wishes, a Buddha can spread his aura at will, BuA.106); the conveyance in which he makes his renunciation, the tree under which he attains Enlightenment, and the size of the seat (pallanka) under the Bodhi tree.

Only the first five are mentioned in DA.ii.424; also at BuA.105; all eight are given at BuA.246f., which also gives details under each of the eight heads, regarding all the twenty five Buddhas.

In the case of all Buddhas, there are four fixed spots (avijahitatthānāni). These are:

  • the site of the seat under the Bodhi tree (bodhipallanka),
  • the Deer Park at Isipatana where the first sermon is preached,
  • the spot where the Buddha first steps on the ground at Sankassa on his descent from Tusita (Tāvatimsa?)
  • the spots marked by the four posts of the bed in the Buddha's Gandhakuti in Jetavana.

The monastery may vary in size; the site of the city in which it stands may also vary, but not the site of the bed. Sometimes it is to the east of the vihāra, sometimes to the north (DA.ii.424; BuA.247).

Thirty facts are mentioned as being true of all Buddhas (samatimsavidhā dhammatā).

  • In his last life every Bodhisatta is conscious at the moment of his conception;
  • in his mother's womb he remains cross legged with his face turned outwards;
  • his mother gives birth to him in a standing posture;
  • the birth takes place in a forest grove (araññe);
  • immediately after birth he takes seven steps to the north and roars the "lion's roar";
  • he makes his renunciation after seeing the four omens and after a son is born to him;
  • he has to practise austerities for at least seven days after donning the yellow robe;
  • he has a meal of milk rice on the day of his Enlightenment;
  • he attains to omniscience seated on a carpet of grass;
  • he practises concentration in breathing;
  • he defeats Māra's forces;
  • he attains to supreme perfection in all knowledge and virtue at the foot of the Bodhi tree;
  • Mahā Brahmā requests him to preach the Dhamma;
  • he preaches his first sermon in the Deer Park at Isipatana;
  • he recites the Pātimokkha to the fourfold assembly on the full moon day of Māgha;
  • he resides chiefly in Jetavana, he performs the Twin Miracle in Sāvatthi;
  • he preaches the Abhidhamma in Tāvatimsa;
  • he descends from there at the gate of Sankassa;
  • he constantly lives in the bliss of phalasamāpatti;
  • he investigates the possibility of converting others during two jhānas;
  • he lays down the precepts only when occasion arises for them;
  • he relates Jātakas when suitable occasions occur;
  • he recites the Buddhavamsa in the assembly of his kinsmen;
  • he always greets courteously monks who visit him;
  • he never leaves the place where he has spent the rainy season without bidding farewell to his hosts;
  • each day he has prescribed duties before and after his meal and during the three watches of the night;
  • he eats a meal containing flesh (mamsarajabhojana) immediately before his death;
  • and just before his death he enters into the twenty four crores and one hundred thousand samāpattī.

There are also mentioned four dangers from which all Buddhas are immune:

  • no misfortune can befall the four requisites intended for a Buddha;
  • no one can encompass his death;
  • no injury can befall any of his thirty two Mahāpurisalakkhanā or eighty anubyañjanā;
  • nothing can obstruct his aura (BuA.248).

A Buddha is born only in this Cakkavāla out of the ten thousand Cakkavālas which constitute the jātikkhetta (AA.i.251; DA.iii.897). There can appear only one Buddha in the world at a time (D.ii.225; D.iii.114; the reasons for this are given in detail in Mil. 236, and quoted in DA.iii.900f). No Buddha can arise until the sāsana of the previous Buddha has completely disappeared from the world. This happens only with the dhātuparinibbāna (see below). When a Bodhisatta takes conception in his mother's womb in his last life, after leaving Tusita, there is manifested throughout the world a wonderful radiance, and the ten thousand world systems tremble.

Similar earthquakes appear when he is born, when he attains Enlightenment, when he preaches the first sermon, when he decides to die, when he finally does so (D.ii.108f.; cp. DA.iii.897).

The Mahāpādāna Sutta (D.ii.12-15) and the Acchariya-bbhuta-dhamma Sutta (M.iii.119-124) contain accounts of other miracles, which attend the conception and birth of a Buddha. Later books (e.g., J.i.) have greatly enlarged these accounts. They describe how the Bodhisatta, having practised the thirty Pāramī, and made the five great gifts (pañcamahāpariccāgā), and thus reached the pinnacle of the threefold cariyā -  ñātattha-cariyā, lokattha-cariyā and buddhi-cariyā -  gives the seven mahādānā, as in the case of Vessantara, making the earth tremble seven times, and is born after death in Tusita.

The Bodhisatta, who later became Vipassī Buddha, remained in Tusita during the whole permissible period -  fifty seven crores and sixty seven thousand years. But most Bodhisattas leave Tusita before completing the full span of life there. Five signs appear to warn the devaputta that his end is near (see Deva); the gods of the ten thousand worlds gather round him, beseeching him to be born on earth that he may become the Buddha. The Bodhisatta thereupon makes the five investigations (pañcamahāvilokanāni).

Sometimes only one Buddha is born in a kappa, such a kappa being called Sārakappa; sometimes two, Mandakappa; sometimes three, Varakappa; sometimes four, Sāramandakappa; rarely five, Bhaddakappa (BuA.158f). No Buddha is born in the early period of a kappa, when men live longer than one hundred thousand years and are thus not able to recognize the nature of old age and death, and therefore not able to benefit by his preaching. When the life of man is too short, there is no time for exhortation and men are full of kilesa. The suitable age for a Buddha is, therefore, when men live not less than one hundred years and not more than ten thousand. The Bodhisatta must first consider the continent and the country of birth. Buddhas are born only in Jambudīpa, and there, too, only in the Majjhimadesa. He must then consider the family; Buddhas are born only in brahmin or khattiya families, whichever is more esteemed during that particular age. Then he must think of the mother: she must be wise and virtuous; and her life must be destined to end seven days after the Buddha's birth.

Having made these decisions, the Bodhisatta goes to Nandanavana in Tusita, and while wandering about there "falls away" from Tusita and takes conception. He is aware of his death but unaware of his cuti-citta or dying thought. The Commentators seem to have differed as to whether there is awareness of conception. When the Bodhisatta is conceived, his mother has no further wish for indulgence in sexual pleasure. For seven days previously she observes the uposatha vows, but there is no mention of a virgin birth; the birth might be called parthenogenetic (see Mil.123).

On the day of the actual conception, the mother, having bathed in scented water after the celebration of the Asālha festival, and having eaten choice food, takes upon herself the uposatha vows and retires to the adorned state bedchamber. As she sleeps, she dreams that the Four Regent Gods raise her with her bed, and, having taken her to the Himālaya, bathe her in Lake Anotatta, robe her in divine clothes, anoint her with perfumes and deck her with heavenly flowers (according to the Nidānakathā, J.i.50, it is their queens who do these things, re the Bodhisatta assuming the form of an elephant, see Dial.ii.116n). Not far away is a silver mountain and on it a golden mansion. There they lay her with her head to the east. The Bodhisatta, assuming the form of a white elephant, enters her room, and after circling right wise three times round her bed, smites her right side with his trunk and enters her womb. She awakes and tells her husband of her dream. Soothsayers are consulted, and they prophesy the birth of a Cakka-vatti or of a Buddha.

The two Suttas mentioned above speak of the circumstances obtaining during the time spent by the child in his mother's womb. It is said (DA.ii.437) that the Bodhisatta is born when his mother is in the last third of her middle age. This is in order that the birth may be easy for both mother and child. Various miracles attend the birth of the Bodhisatta. The Commentaries expound, at great length, the accounts of these miracles given in the Suttas. Immediately after birth the Bodhisatta stands firmly on his feet, and having taken seven strides to the north, while a white canopy, is held over his head, looks round and utters in fearless voice the lion's roar: "Aggo 'ham asmi lokassa, jettho 'ham asmi lokassa, settho 'ham asmi lokassa, ayam antimā jāti, natthi dāni punabbhavo” (D.ii.15).

To the later Buddhists, not only these acts of the Bodhisatta, but every item of the miracles accompanying his birth, have their symbolical meaning. See, e.g., DA.ii.439; thus, standing on the earth means the attaining of the four iddhi-pādas; facing north implies the spiritual conquest of multitudes; the seven strides are the seven bojjhangas; the canopy is the umbrella of emancipation; looking round means unveiled knowledge; fearlessness denotes the irrevocable turning of the Wheel of the Law; the mention of the last birth, the arahantship he will attain in this life, etc.

There seems to have been a difference of opinion among the Elders of the Sangha as to what happened when the Bodhisatta took his seven strides northwards. Did he walk on the earth or travel through the air? Did people see him go? Was he clothed? Did he look an infant or an adult? Tipitaka Culābhaya, preaching on the first floor of the Lohapāsāda, settled the question by suggesting a compromise: the Bodhisatta walked on earth, but the onlookers felt he was travelling through the air; he was naked, but the onlookers felt he was gaily adorned; he was an infant, but looked sixteen years old; and after his roar he reverted to infancy! (DA.ii.442)

After birth, the Bodhisatta is presented to the soothsayers for their prognostications and they reassert that two courses alone are open to him   either to be a Cakka-vatti or a Buddha. They also discover on his body the thirty two marks of the Great Man (Mahāpurisa) (These are given at D.ii.17 19; also M.ii.136f). The Bodhisatta has also the eighty secondary signs (asīti anubyañjana) such as copper coloured nails glossy and prominent, sinews which are hidden and without knots, etc. (The list is found in Lal. 121 [106]). The Brahmāyu Sutta (for details see M.ii.137f) gives other particulars about Gotama, which are evidently characteristic of all Buddhas. Thus, in walking he always starts with the right foot, his steps are neither too long nor too short, only his lower limbs move; when he gazes on anything, he turns right round to do so (nāgavilokana). When entering a house he never bends his body (Cp. DhA.ii.136); when sitting down, accepting water to wash his bowl, eating, washing his hands after eating, or returning thanks, he sits with the greatest propriety, dignity and thoroughness. When preaching, he neither flatters nor denounces his hearers but merely instructs them, rousing, enlightening and heartening them (M.ii.139). His voice possesses eight qualities: it is frank, clear, melodious, pleasant, full, carrying, deep and resonant; it does not travel beyond his audience (for details concerning his voice see DA.ii.452f.; and MA.ii.771f). A passage in the Anguttara (A.iv.308) says that a Buddha preaches in the eight assemblies -  of nobles, brahmins, householders, recluses, devas of the Cātummahārājika world, and of Tāvatimsa, of Māras and of Brahmās. In these assemblies he becomes one of them and their language becomes his.

The typical career of a Buddha is illustrated in the life of Gotama. He renounces the world only after the birth of a son. This, the Commentary explains (DA.ii.422), is to prevent him from being taken for other than a human being. He sees the four omens before his Renunciation: an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and a recluse. Some Buddhas see all four on the same day, others, like Vipassī, at long intervals (DA.ii.457). On the night before the Enlightenment, the Bodhisatta dreams five dreams (A.iii.240). After the Enlightenment the Buddha does not preach till asked to do so by Mahā Brahmā. This is on order that the world may pay greater attention to the Buddha and his teaching (DA.ii.467). A Buddha generally travels from the Bodhi tree to Isipatana for his first sermon, through the air, but Gotama went on foot because he wished to meet Upaka on the way (DA.ii.471).

The Buddha's day is divided into periods, each of which has its distinct duties (DA.i.45f; SNA.i.131f, etc.). He rises early, and having attended to his bodily functions, sits in solitude till the time arrives for the alms round. He then puts on his outer robe and goes for alms, sometimes alone, sometimes with a large following of monks. When he wishes to go alone he keeps the door of his cell shut, which sign is understood by the monks (Ibid., 271). Occasionally he goes long distances for alms, travelling through the air, and then only khīnāsavā are allowed to accompany him (ThagA.i.65). Sometimes he goes in the ordinary way (pakatiyā), sometimes accompanied by many miracles. After the meal he returns to his cell; this is the pure bhattakicca.

Having washed his feet, he would emerge from his cell, talk to the monks and admonish them. To those who ask for subjects of meditation, he would give them according to their temperament. He would then retire to his cell and, if he so desire, sleep for a while. After that, he looks around the world with his divine eye, seeking whom he may serve, and would then preach to those who come to him for instruction. In the evening he would bathe, and then, during the first watch, attend to monks seeking his advice. The middle watch is spent with devas and others who visit him to question him. The last watch is divided into three parts: the first part is spent in walking about for exercise and meditation; the second is devoted to sleep; and the third to contemplation, during which those who are capable of benefiting by the Buddha's teaching, through good deeds done by them in the past, come into his vision. Only beings that are veneyyā (capable of benefiting by instruction) and who possess upanissaya, appear before the Buddha's divine eye (DA.ii.470).

The Buddha gives his visitors permission to ask what they will. This is called Sabbaññupavārana, and only a Buddha is capable of holding to this promise to answer any question (SNA.i.229). Except during the rains, the Buddha spends his time in wandering from place to place, gladdening men and inciting them to lead the good life. This wandering is called cārikā and is of two kinds -  turita and aturita. The first is used for a long journey accomplished by him in a very short time, for the benefit of some particular person. Thus Gotama travelled three gāvutas to meet Mahā Kassapa, thirty yojanas to see Alavaka and Angulimāla, forty five yojanas to see Pukusāti, etc. In the case of aturita cārikā progress is slow. The range of a Buddha's cārikā varies from year to year. Sometimes he would tour the Mahāmandala of nine hundred yojanas, sometimes the Majjhimamandala of nine hundred yojanas, sometimes only the Antomandala of six hundred yojanas. A tour of the Mahāmandala occupies nine months, that of the Majjhimamandala eight, and that of the Antomandala from one to four months. Details of the cārikā and the reasons for them are given at length in DA.i.240 3. When the Buddha cannot go on a journey himself, he sends his chief disciples (SNA.ii.474). The Buddha announces his intention of undertaking a journey two weeks before he starts, so that the monks may get ready (DhA.ii.167).

The Buddha is omniscient, not in the sense that he knows everything, but that he could know anything should he so desire (see MNid.178,179; see also MNidA.223; SNA.i.18.). His ñāña is one of the four illimitables (neither can the Buddha's body be measured for purposes of comparison with other bodies, MA.ii.790). He converts people in one of three ways:

  • by exhibition of miraculous powers (iddhipātihāriya),
  • by reading their thoughts (ādesanāpātihāriya),
  • or teaching them what is beneficial to them according to their character and temperament (anusāsanīpātihāriya).

It is the last method, which the Buddha most often uses (BuA.81) The Buddha's rivals say that he possesses the power of fascination (āvattanīmāyā); but this is untrue, as sometimes (e.g., in the case of the Kosambi monks) he cannot make even his own disciples obey him. Some beings, however, can be converted only by a Buddha. They are called buddha veneyyā (SNA.i.331). Some are pleased by the Buddha's looks, others by his voice and words, yet others by his austerities, such as the wearing of simple robes, etc.; and finally, those whose standard of judgment is goodness, reflect that he is without a peer (DhA.iii.113f.).

Though the Buddha's teaching is never really lost on the listener, he sometimes preaches knowing that it will be of no immediate benefit (see, e.g., Udumbarikasīhanāda Sutta, D.iii.57). It is said that wherever a monk dwells during the Buddha's time, in the vicinity of the Buddha, he would always have ready a special seat for the Buddha because it is possible that the Buddha would pay him a special visit (DA.i.48). Sometimes the Buddha will send a ray of light from his Gandhakuti to encourage a monk engaged in meditation and, appearing before him in this ray of light, preach to him. Stanzas so preached are called obhāsagāthā (SNA.i.16, 265).

Every Buddha founds an Order; the first pātimokkhuddesagāthā of every Buddha is the same (DA.ii.479). The attainment of arahantship is always the aim of the Buddha's instruction (DA.iii.732). Beings can obtain the four abhiññā only during the lifetime of a Buddha (AA.i.204). A Buddha has ten powers (balāni) which consist of his perfect comprehension in ten fields of knowledge,

A.v.32f.; M.i.69, etc. At S.ii.27f., ten similar powers are given as consisting of his knowledge of the Paticasamuppāda. The powers of a disciple are distinct from those of a Buddha (Kvu.228); they are seven (see, e.g., D.iii.283) and physical strength equal to that of one hundred thousand crores of elephants (BuA.37). He alone can digest the food of the devas or food which contains the ojā put into it by the devas. No one else can eat with impunity the food which has been set apart for the Buddha (SNA.i.154). Besides these excellences, a Buddha possesses the four assurances (vesārajjāni, given at M.i.71f)), the eighteen āvenikadhammā*, and the sixteen anuttariyas**.

*Described at Lal. 183, 343, Buddhaghosa also gives (at DA.iii.994) a list of eighteen buddhadhammā, but they are all concerned with the absence of duccarita in the case of the Buddha.

**Given by Sāriputta in the Sampasādāniya Sutta (D.iii.102ff.).

The remembrance of former births a Buddha shares with six classes of purified beings, only in a higher degree. This faculty is possessed in ascending scale by titthiyā, pakatisāvakā, mahāsāvakā, aggasāvakā, pacceka buddhā and buddhā (E.g.,Vsm.411).

Every Buddha holds a Mahāsamaya, and only a Buddha is capable of preaching a series of suttas to suit the different temperaments of the mighty assembly gathered there (D.ii.255; DA.ii.682f).

A Buddha is not completely immune from disease (e.g., Gotama). Every Buddha has the power of living for one whole kappa," but no Buddha does so, his term of life being shortened by reason of climate and the food he takes (DA.ii.413).

The Commentary explains (DA.ii.554f.) that kappa here means āyukappa, the full span of a man's life during that particular age. Some, like Mahāsīva Thera, maintained that if the Buddha could live for ten months, overcoming the pains of death, he could as well continue to live to the end of this Bhaddakappa. But a Buddha does not do so because he wishes to die before his body is overcome by the infirmities of old age.

No Buddha, however, dies till the sāsana is firmly established (D.iii.122).  There are three parinibbānā in the case of a Buddha: kilesa parinibbāna, khandha parinibbāna and dhātu parinibbāna. The first takes place under the Bodhi tree, the second at the moment of the Buddha's death, the third long after (DA.iii.899f.; for the history of Gotama's relics see Gotama). Some Buddhas live longer than others; those that are dighāyuka have only sammukhasāvakā (disciples who hear the Doctrine from the Buddha himself), and at their death their relics are not scattered, only a single thūpa being erected over them (SNA. 194, 195). Short lived Buddhas hold the uposatha once a fortnight; others (e.g. Kassapa Buddha) may have it once in six months; yet others (e.g. Vipassī) only once in six years (ThagA.i.62).

After the Buddha's death, his Doctrine is gradually forgotten. The first Pitaka to be lost is the Abhidhamma, beginning with the Patthāna and ending with the Dhammasangani. Then, the Anguttara Nikāya of the Sutta Pitaka, from the eleventh to the first Nipāta; next the Samyutta Nikāya from the Cakkapeyyāla to the Oghatarana; then the Majjhima, from the Indriyabhāvanā Sutta to the Mūlapariyāya Sutta, and then the Dīgha, from the Dasuttara to the Brahmajāla. Scattered gāthā like the Sabhiyapucchā, and the ālavakapucchā, last much longer, but they cannot maintain the sāsana. The last Pitaka to disappear is the Vinaya, the last portion being the mātikā of the Ubhatovibhanga (VibhA.432).

When a Buddha dies, his body receives the honours due to a monarch (these are detailed at D.ii.141f). It is said that on the night on which a Buddha attains Enlightenment, and on the night during which he dies, the colour of his skin becomes exceedingly bright (D.ii.134). Here we have the beginning of a legend which later grew into an account of an actual "transfiguration" of the Buddha.

At all times, where a Buddha is present, no other light can shine (SNA.ii.525).

No Buddha is born during the samvattamānakappa, but only during the vivattamānakappa (SNA.i.51). A Bodhisatta who excels in paññā can attain Buddhahood in four asankheyyas; one who exels in saddhā, in eight, and one whose viriya is the chief factor, in sixteen (SNA.i.47f). When once a being has become a Bodhisatta there are eighteen conditions from which he is immune (SNA.i.50). The Buddha is referred to under various epithets. The Anguttara Nikāya gives one such list. There he is called Samana, Brāhmana, Vedagū, Bhisaka, Nimmala, Vimala, Ñānī and Vimutta (C.iv. 340). Buddhaghosa gives seven others: Cakkkumā, Sabbabhūtanukampī, Vihātaka, Mārasenappamaddī, Vusitavā, Vimutto and Angirasa (DA.iii.962f).

The Buddha generally speaks of himself as Tathāgata. This term is explained at great length in the Commentaries -  e.g., DA.i.59f. His followers usually address him as Bhagavā, while others call him by his name (Gotama). In the case of Gotama Buddha, we find him also addressed as Sakka (SN. vs. 345; perhaps the equivalent of Sākya), Brahma (SN. p.91; SNA.ii.418), Mahāmuni (BuA.38) and Yakkha (M.i.386; also KS.i.262). Countless other epithets occur in the books, especially in the later ones. One very famous formula, used by Buddhists in their ritual, contains nine epithets, the formula being: Bhagavā araham sammāsambuddho, vijjācaranasampanno, sugato, lokavidū, anuttaro, purisadammasārathi, satthā devamanussānam, Buddho Bhagavā (these words are analysed and discussed in Vsm. 198 ff). It is maintained (e.g., DA.i.288) that the Buddha's praises are limitless (aparimāna). One of his most striking characteristics, mentioned over and over again, is his love of quiet.

E.g., D.i.178f.; he is also fond of solitude (patissallāna), (D.ii.70; A.iv.438f.; S.v.320f., etc.). When he is in retirement it is usually akāla for visiting him (D.ii.270). There are also certain accusations, which are brought against a Buddha by his rivals, for this very love of solitude. "It is said that his insight is ruined by this habit of seclusion. By intercourse with whom does he attain lucidity in wisdom? He is not at his ease in conducting an assembly, not ready in conversation, he is occupied only with the fringe of things. He is like a one eyed cow, walking in a circle" (D.iii.38).

In this his disciples followed his example (D.iii.37). The dwelling place of a Buddha is called Gandhakuti. His footprint is called Padacetiya, and this can be seen only when he so desires it. When once he wishes it to be visible, no one can erase it. He can also so will that only one particular person shall see it (DhA.iii.194). It is also said that his power of love is so great that no evil action can show its results in his presence (SNA.ii.475). A Buddha never asks for praise, but if his praises are uttered in his presence he takes no offence (ThagA.ii.42). When the Buddha is seated in some spot, none has the power of going through the air above him (SNA.i.222). He prefers to accept the invitations of poor men to a meal (DhA.ii.135)."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s.v.]

11. Puretvā pāramī sabbā,
patvā sambodhim uttamaṃ;
uttamo Gotamo buddho,
satte dukkhā pamocayi.

11. Er erfüllte vollkommen alle Vollkommenheiten1, erreichte dann das höchste vollkommene Erwachen und erlöste als unübertrefflicher Buddha Gotama die Wesen.

Kommentar:

1 Die 10 Vollkommenheiten (pāramitā)

  1. dāna (n.) -- Freigebigkeit
  2. sīla (n.) -- Sittlichkeit
  3. nekkhamma (n.) -- Entsagung
  4. paññā (f.) -- Weisheit
  5. viriya (n.) -- Willenskraft, Energie
  6. khanti (f.) -- Nachsicht
  7. sacca (n.) -- Wahrhaftigkeit
  8. adiṭṭhāna (n.) -- Standfestigkeit (Entschlossenheit)
  9. mettā (f.) -- Güte
  10. upekkhā (f.) -- Gelassenheit / Gleichmut

3. Vom Erwachen bis zum ersten Besuch in Lankā


Kommentar:

Hauptzweck dieses Abschnitts, ist zu zeigen, wie wichtig und vorrangig für den Buddha Lankā war: schon zu Beginn seiner öffentlichen Tätigkeit besucht er Lankā, um es von den "Dämonen" zu "reinigen".

12. Magadhes' uruvelāyaṃ,
bodhimūle mahāmuni;
Visākhapuṇṇamāyaṃa so,
patto sambodhim uttamaṃ.

a Geiger: Vesākhapuṇṇamāyaṃ

12. In Uruvelā1 in Magadha, am Fuße des Bodhibaums2 erreichte dieser große Weise am Vollmondtag des Monats Vesākha3 [dem 2. Monat des Jahres] das höchste vollkommene Erwachen. [Nach der Theravādachronologie4 im Jahre 589 v. Chr.]

Kommentar:

1 Uruvelā


Abb.: Lage von Uruvelā und Vārānasi (Benares)
(©MS Encarta)

"Uruvelā.

A locality on the banks of the Nerañjarā, in the neighbourhood of the Bodhi-tree at Buddhagayā. Here, after leaving Alāra and Uddaka, the Bodhisatta practised during six years the most severe penances. His companions were the Pañcavaggiya-monks, who, however, left him when he relaxed the severity of his austerities (M.i.166). The place chosen by the Bodhisatta for his penances was called Senā-nigama.

The Jātaka version (J.i.67f) contains additional particulars. It relates that once the Bodhisatta fainted under his austerities, and the news was conveyed to his father that he was dead. Suddhodana, however, refused to believe this, remembering the prophecy of Kāladevala. When the Bodhisatta decided to take ordinary food again, it was given to him by a girl, Sujātā, daughter of Senānī of the township of Senānī. In the neighbourhood of Uruvelā were also the Ajapāla Banyan-tree, the Mucalinda-tree and the Rājāyatana-tree, where the Buddha spent some time after his Enlightenment, and where various shrines, such as the Animisa-cetiya, the Ratanacankama-cetiya and the Ratanaghara later came into existence.

From Uruvela the Buddha went to Isipatana, but after, he had made sixty-one arahants and sent them out on tour to preach the Doctrine, he returned to Uruvelā, to the Kappāsikavanasanda and converted the Bhaddavaggiyā (Vin.i.23f; DhA.i.72). At Uruvelā dwelt also the Tebhātika-Jatilas: Uruvela-Kassapa, Nadī-Kassapa and Gayā-Kassapa, who all became followers of the Buddha (Vin.i.25).

According to the Ceylon Chronicles (E.g., Mhv.i.17ff; Dpv.i.35, 38, 81), it was while spending the rainy season at Uruvelā, waiting for the time when the Kassapa brothers should be ripe for conversion, that the Buddha, on the full-moon day of Phussa, in the ninth month after the Enlightenment, paid his first visit to Ceylon.

Mention is made of several temptations of the Buddha while he dwelt at Uruvela, apart from the supreme contest with Māra, under the Bodhi-tree. Once Māra came to him in the darkness of the night in the guise of a terrifying elephant, trying to frighten him. On another dark night when the rain was falling drop by drop, Māra came to the Buddha and assumed various wondrous shapes, beautiful and ugly. Another time Māra tried to fill the Buddha's mind with doubt as to whether he had really broken away from all fetters and won complete Enlightenment (S.i.103ff). Seven years after the Buddha's Renunciation, Māra made one more attempt to make the Buddha discontented with his lonely lot and it was then, when Māra had gone away discomfited, that Mars's three daughters, Tanhā, Ratī and Ragā, made a final effort to draw the Buddha away from his purpose (S.i.124f).

It was at Uruvelā, too, that the Buddha had misgivings in his own mind as to the usefulness of preaching the Doctrine which he had realised, to a world blinded by passions and prejudices. The Brahmā Sahampatī thereupon entreated the Buddha not to give way to such diffidence (S.i.136ff; Vin.i.4f). It is recorded that either on this very occasion or quite soon after, the thought arose in the Buddha's mind that the sole method of winning Nibbāna was to cultivate the four satipatthānas and that Sahampatī visited the Blessed One and confirmed his view (S.v.167; and again, 185). A different version occurs elsewhere (S.v.232), where the thought which arose in the Buddha's mind referred to the five controlling faculties (saddhindriya, etc.), and Brahmā tells the Buddha that in the time of Kassapa he had been a monk named Sahaka and that then he had practised these five faculties.

The name Uruvela is explained as meaning a great sandbank (mahā velā, mahanto vālikarāsi). A story is told which furnishes an alternative explanation: Before the Buddha's appearance in the world, ten thousand ascetics lived in this locality, and they decided among themselves that if any evil thought arose in the mind of any one of them, he should carry a basket of sand to a certain spot. The sand so collected eventually formed a great bank (AA.ii.476; UdA.26; MA.i.376; MT.84). In the Divyāvadāna (p.202), the place is called Uruvilvā. The Mahāvastu (ii.207) mentions four villages as being in Uruvelā: Praskandaka, Balākalpa, Ujjangala and Jangala."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s.v.]

"Bodh Gaya [Hindi, बोधगया] or Bodhgaya is the place of Buddha's attainment of Enlightenment. The complex, located about 96 kilometers from Patna (situated at latitude 24° 41' 45" N, longitude 85° 2' 2" E) in the state of Bihar [बिहार] in India, contains the Mahabodhi Temple with the diamond throne (called the Vajrasana) and the holy Bodhi tree and was built over 2500 years ago. This tree is a sapling of the Sri Maha Bodhi tree in Sri Lanka, itself a sapling of the original Bodhi tree.

For Buddhists, Bodh Gaya is the most important of the four pilgrimage sites related to the life of Gautama Buddha, the other three being Kushinagar, Lumbini, and Sarnath. As of 2002, Mahabodhi Temple located in Bodh Gaya, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site specifically nominated for the international World heritage program.

History

According to Buddhist traditions, circa 500 BC Prince Gautama Siddhartha, wandering as a monk, reached the sylvan banks of Falgu River, near the city of Gaya. There he sat in meditation under a peepal tree (Ficus religiosa). After three days and three nights of meditation, Siddharta attained enlightenment and insight, and the answers that he had sought. Enlightened by the new thought, he spent seven weeks at seven different spots in the vicinity meditating and considering his experience. After seven weeks, he travelled to Sarnath, where he began teaching Buddhism.

Disciples of Gautama Siddhartha began to visit the place where he had gained enlightenment during the full moon in the month of Vaisakh (April-May), as per the Hindu calendar. Over time, the place became known as Bodh Gaya, the day of enlightenment as Buddha Purnima, and the tree as the Bodhi Tree.

The history of Bodh Gaya is documented by many inscriptions and pilgrimage accounts. Foremost among these are the accounts of the Chinese pilgrims Faxian [法顯] in the 5th century and Xuanzang [玄奘] in the 7th century. The area was at the heart of a Buddhist civilization for centuries, until it was conquered by Turkish armies in the 13th century.

Mahabodhi temple

It is believed that 250 years after the Enlightenment of the Buddha, Emperor Ashoka visited Bodh Gaya. He is considered to be the original founder of the Mahabodhi temple. It consisted of an elongated spire crowned by a miniature stupa and a chhatravali on a platform. A double flight of steps led up to the platform and the upper sanctum. The mouldings on the spire contained Buddha images in niches. Some historians believe that the temple was constructed or renovated in the 1st century during the Kushan period. With the decline of Buddhism in India, the temple was abandoned and forgotten, buried under deep layers of soil and sand.

The temple was later restored by Sir Alexander Cunningham as part of his work for the British Archaeological Society in the late 19th century. In 1883, Sir Cunningham along with J. D. Beglar and Dr. Rajendralal Miitra painstakingly excavated the site. Extensive renovation work was carried out restoring Bodh Gaya to its former glory.

Other Buddhist temples

Presently, several Buddhist temples and monasteries built and maintained by the people of Bhutan, China, Japan, Myanmar, Nepal, Sikkim, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tibet and Vietnam dot the landscape around the temple. These buildings reflect the architectural style, exterior and interior decoration, and idols of their respective countries. The idol of Buddha in the Chinese Temple is 200 years old and was brought from China. Japan's Nippon Temple is shaped like a pagoda. The Myanmar (Burmese) Temple is also pagoda shaped and is reminiscent of Pagan. The Thai Temple has a typical sloping, curved roof covered with golden tiles. Inside, the temple holds a massive and spectacular bronze idol of Buddha. Next to the Thai temple there is a 25 meter statue of Buddha located within a garden rhat has excised there for over 100 years."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodh_Gaya. -- Zugriff am 2006-04-24]

2 Bodhibaum: im Falle von Gotama ein assattha = Ficus religiosa


Abb.: asattha = Ficus religiosa
[Bildquelle. Wikipedia]

Ausführlich und fundiert zur Ficus religiosa siehe:

The wealth of India : a dictionary of Indian raw materials & industrial products. -- Raw materials. -- Vol. IV. -- New Delhi : Council of scientific & industrial research, 1956. -- ISBN 81-85038-13-9. -- S. 38f.

3 Vesākha

Die Monate nach dem indischen Mondkalender sind:

  Monatsname fällt in Monate bzw.
1 Citta Februar/März März/April
2. Vesākha März/April April/Mai
3 Jeṭṭha April/Mai Mai/Juni
4 Āsāḷha Mai/Juni Juni/Juli
5 Sāvaṇa Juni/Juli Juli/August
6. Poṭṭhapāda Juli/August August/September
7. Assayuja August/September September/Oktober
8. Kattika September/Oktober Oktober/November
9. Maggasira/Māgasira Oktober/November November/Dezember
10. Phussa November/Dezember Dezember/Januar
11. Māgha Dezember/Januar Januar/Februar
12. Phagguna Januar/Februar Februar/März


Abb.: Wesak, Colombo, 2006
[Bildquelle: Araleya. -- http://www.flickr.com//photos/araleya/145641406/. -- Creative Commons Lizenz. -- Zugriff am 2006-06-04]

"Vesak (from the name of the second month in the Hindu calendar, Vaisakha) is the most holy time in the Buddhist calendar. The word Vesak itself is the Sinhalese language word for the Pali word "Visakha". Vesak is also known as Visakah Puja or Buddha Purnima in India, Visakha Bucha in Thailand, Waisak in Indonesia, Vesak (Wesak) in Sri Lanka and Malaysia, and Saga Dawa in Tibet. The equivalent festival in Laos is called Vixakha Bouxa. Vesak is a public holiday in many Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, and so on.

History

The decision to agree to celebrate Vesak as the Buddha’s birthday was formalized at the first Conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists (W.F.B.) held in Sri Lanka in 1950, although festivals at this time in the Buddhist world are a centuries-old tradition. The Resolution that was adopted at the World Conference reads as follows:-

“That this Conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists, while recording its appreciation of the gracious act of His Majesty, the Maharaja of Nepal in making the full-moon day of Vesak a Public Holiday in Nepal, earnestly requests the Heads of Governments of all countries in which large or small number of Buddhists are to be found, to take steps to make the full-moon day in the month of May a Public Holiday in honour of the Buddha, who is universally acclaimed as one of the greatest benefactors of Humanity."

Hence on Vesak Day, Buddhists all over the world commemorate three great events: The Birth, Enlightenment and the Passing Away of Gautama Buddha. As Buddhism spread from India to all parts of the world, the teachings were readily assimilated with the cultures of the people who accepted the teachings. As a result, Buddhist art and culture took on a rich variety of forms with profound gentleness and kindness as the Buddha expressly forbade the use of force. The practice of Buddhism was adapted in many ways to suit the nature of the various cultures that accepted it. As a result of this, Vesak is celebrated in many different ways all over the world. But in essence many practices have become universal. This sacred day is purely a religious festival, and not a festive occasion. On this day all Buddhists are expected to reaffirm their faith in the Buddha Dhamma and to lead a noble religious life. It is a day for meditation and for radiating Loving-Kindness.

The celebration of Vesak

On Vesak day, devout Buddhists are expected to assemble in various temples before dawn for the ceremonial hoisting of the Buddhist Flag and the singing of hymns in praise of the holy triple gem: The Buddha, The Dhamma (His teachings), and The Sangha (His disciples). Devotees may bring simple offerings of flowers, candles and joss-sticks to lay at the feet of their teacher. These symbolic offerings are to remind followers that just as the beautiful flowers would wither away after a short while and the candles and joss-sticks would soon burn out, so too is life subject to decay and destruction. Devotees are enjoined to make a special effort to refrain from killing of any kind. They are encouraged to partake of vegetarian food for the day. In some countries, notably Sri Lanka, two days are set aside for the celebration of Vesak and all liquor shops and slaughter houses are closed by government decree during the two days. Birds and animals are also released by the thousands in a symbolic act to liberation, of giving freedom to those who are in captivity. However, it is not recommended that birds be released in the heart of crowded cities, because by doing so we may cause harm to the poor bewildered birds which are unable to fly far after a long period of captivity. Unscrupulous bird dealers would recapture such birds for resale to well meaning devotees. If birds are to be released it is recommended that this be done in rural areas where the birds can achieve real freedom. Some devout Buddhists will wear a simple white dress and spend the whole day in temples with renewed determination to observe the observance of the Eight Precepts.

Devout Buddhists understand how to lead a noble life according to the Teaching by making a daily affirmation to observe the eight Precepts. However, on special days, notably new moon and full moon days, they observe additional disciplines to train themselves to practice morality, simplicity and humility.

The Eight Precepts are:

  1. Not to kill
  2. Not to steal
  3. Not to engage in sexual misconduct
  4. Not to indulge in wrong speech
  5. Not to take intoxicating drinks and drugs
  6. To abstain from taking food at unreasonable time
  7. To refrain from sensual pleasures such as dancing, singing and self-adornment
  8. To refrain from using high and luxurious seats in order to practice humility.

Devotees are expected to listen to talks given by monks. On this day monks will recite verses uttered by the Buddha twenty-five centuries ago, to invoke peace and happiness for the Government and the people. Buddhists are reminded to live in harmony with people of other faiths and to respect the beliefs of other people as the Buddha had taught.

Bringing happiness to others

Celebrating Wesak also means making special efforts to bring happiness to the unfortunate like the aged, the handicapped and the sick. To this end, Buddhists will distribute gifts in cash and kind to various charitable homes throughout the country. Wesak is also a time for great joy and happiness. But this joy is expressed not by pandering to one’s appetites but by concentrating on useful activities such as decorating and illuminating temples, painting and creating exquisite scenes from the life of the Buddha for public dissemination. Devout Buddhists also vie with one another to provide refreshments and vegetarian food to devotees who visit the temple to pay homage to the Blessed One.

Float processions

In recent years many Buddhist groups have taken to organising processions with decorated floats carrying the image of the Buddha to celebrate Wesak, although this is a relatively recent tradition. Temples are also decorated modestly in good taste so as to encourage people to visit the temple to attend the religious services and not merely to view the decorations.

Paying homage to the Buddha

The Buddha Himself has given invaluable advice on how to pay homage to Him. Just before He died, He saw His faithful attendant Ananda, weeping. The Buddha advised him not to weep, but to understand the universal law that all compounded things (including even His own body) must disintegrate. He advised everyone not to cry over the disintegration of the physical body but to regard His teachings (The Dhamma) as their Teacher from then on, because only the Dhamma truth is eternal and not subject to the law of change. He also stressed that the way to pay homage to Him was not merely by offering flowers, incense, and lights, but by truly and sincerely striving to follow His teachings. This is how devotees and expected to celebrated Vesak: to use the opportunity to reiterate their determination to lead noble lives, to develop their minds, to practise loving-kindness and to bring peace and harmony to mankind.

Related holidays

A similar holiday, called Hanamatsuri [佛誕] or "Flower Festival", is celebrated in Japan on April 8. However, Hanamatsuri commemorates only the Buddha's birth. In Hong Kong, Macao and South Korea, the 8th day of the fourth moon in the Chinese calendar is a public holiday, as the "Buddha's Birthday"."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesak. -- Zugriff am 2006-04-24]

"Vaisākha (Hindi: बैसाख baisākh or वैशाख vaiśākh) is a month of the Hindu calendar. In India's national civil calendar, Vaisakha is the second month of the year, beginning on 21 April and ending on 21 May.

In lunar religious calendars, Vaisakha may begin on either the new moon or the full moon around the same time of year, and is usually the second month of the year. The harvest festival of Baisakhi [ਵੈਸਾਖੀ] is celebrated in this month.

In solar religious calendars, as well as the national calendar of Nepal, Vaisākh begins with the Sun's entry into Aries, and is usually the first month of the year.

The Buddhist holiday of Vesak takes its name from Vaisākha."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaisakha. -- Zugriff am 2006-06-01]

4 Theravādachronologie

Die Jahresdaten im Folgenden werden nach der offiziellen Theravādachronologie gegeben, die das Mahāparinibbāna -- das Hinscheiden -- Buddhas ins Jahr 543 v. Chr. setzt und damit die Buddhistische Ära (B.E. -- Buddhist Era) beginnen lässt: B.E. ~ C.E. (Christian Era) + 543

Die wichtigsten Ereignisse im Leben Buddhas sowie die ersten drei Konzilien haben nach dieser Theravādachronologie folgende Jahresdaten C.E.:

Grundlegend zur Datierung:

The dating of the historical Buddha = Die Datierung des historischen Buddha / ed. Heinz Bechert ... - Göttingen : Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. -- (Symposien zur Buddhismusforschung ; ... ) (Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Philologisch-Historische Klasse ; Folge 3, ...)
Pt. 1. -- 1991. -- XV, 525 S. -- (... ; IV, 1) (... , Nr. 189). -- ISBN 3-525-82476-9
Pt. 2. -- 1992. -- X, 530 S. -- (... ; IV, 2) (..., Nr. 194). -- ISBN 3-525-82481-5
Pt. 3. -- 1997. -- VI, 171 S. -- (... ; IV,3) (..., Nr. 222). -- ISBN 3-525-82419-X

Eine gute Übersicht über die Quellen gibt D. T. Devendra:

"ERA, BUDDHIST.

The main tradition for the passing away (parinibbāna) v/ith which the Buddhist Era starts is that of the Southern Buddhists. It is found first in the Sri Lankan chronicles, the Dīpavamsa and the Mahāvaṃsa as well as the historical introduction of the Samantapāsādikā, Buddhaghosa's Commentary on the Vinaya Pitaka, the two first-named separated by about a century from each other, with the Commentary intervening. The calculation is based on the lists of kings and the lengths of their reigns according to the Buddhist traditions of India (including Sarvāstivādins) and Sri Lanka. According to recent critical opinion, the Mahāvaṃsa was probably written about the 6th century A.C. The chronology current in Burma and Siam closely follows that for the event in Sri Lanka. This date is reckoned from the parinibbāna (death) of the Buddha in the middle of 544 B.C. The first year of the Buddhist Era computed from these traditions is 543 B.C.

The traditions of the Jains, whose last tīrthankara Mahāvīra was a contemporary of the Buddha, are a secondary source. They give chiefly 527 B.C. as the tradition for Mahāvīra's death. But this figure is not consistent, as 468,467 and several others are also current. Based mainly on a list of kings and dynasties who are supposed to have reigned between 528 and 58 B.C., the list is regarded by some scholars as absolutely worthless, confusing, as it does the rulers of Ujjain and Magadha and other kingdoms. On this tradition the parinibbāna of the Buddha must be post-dated from the reckoning of the Southern Buddhists, which found its strength in Sri Lanka, the texts themselves stating that Mahāvāra had predeceased the Buddha. But the Jain date is contradictory and unreliable as a basis of calculation.

The tradition of the Northern Buddhists is linked with the Chinese Dotted Record which is discussed below.

These are the chief chronological points in regard to the initial year of the Buddhist Era. The others will be noted in passing.

It must be noted that the research done in India particularly in Asoka and his Inscriptions, as well as in connection with the Greek invasions of India, has been a very large factor in computing dates. The Buddhist records, whether in texts or monastic annals in Sri Lanka have provided the first definite statement of an interval between two events without which no starting point would have been possible. The Purānic and the Jain are the principal Indian traditions. The Northern tradition is led by the Sarvāstivādins.

543 B.C.

Strictly speaking, the traditional year falls within 544-543 B.C., according to the present system of dating.

At what stage did the tradition arise in Sri Lanka? The earliest mention of an interval of time between two memorable events of interest to Buddhists occurs in the Pali Dīpavamsa. This interval is 218 years between the parinibbāna of the Buddha and the abhiseka of Asoka.

The Dīpavamsa was a compilation, perhaps by several authors, and its material was added from time to time.

Although the events chronicled by the finished work do not go beyond the tims of Mahāsena (275-310 A.C), the work itself is considered as likely to belong to a period not later than the fourth century A.C.

The Dīpavamsa is actually a redaction of the material which had been found in "an older work, a sort ot chronicle, of the history of the island from its legendary beginnings onwards. "(Geiger) This older work, known as Atthakathā-Mahāvaṃsa, had been written in Old Sinhalese prose. It probably came down to the arrival of Mahinda in the first year of king Devānampiya Tissa and appears to have existed before the Vinayatthakathā was written in the fifth century A.C. Two eminent critical authorities accept that the Sinhalese Atthakathā are the same as those styled Porānas and the ancient commentary entitled Porānatthakathā. Reasons have recently been given to support that the Dīpavamsa originally was not based on the Sinhalese works on which depended the Samantapāsādikā and the Mahāvaṃsa and that it clearly belonged to an earlier stratum of tradition, undoubtedly the earliest form.

Samantapāsādikā, the historical introduction of which was based on the Dīpavamsa, the author completing the work and adding to it with statements which could have been directly drawn from a Sri Lankan source, the Sinhalese Atthakathā. Whilst Buddhaghosa's work was completed in 427 A.C. which was the penultimate regnal year of Mahānāma, the Atthakathā were witten down in the reign of Vattagāmani (first century B.C.).

In addition to the above, Sri Lanka has preserved a succession of theras from Upāli, the Buddha's contemporary, to Mahinda. This list which was taken from "the old Mahāvaṃsa, in Sinhalese prose with Pali verses, on which our Pali Dīpavamsa and the Mahāvaṃsa are based," (Adikaram) is preserved in the Parivāra. It plays an important part in the chronological system on which the Dīpavamsa and the Mahāvaṃsa are based. Its interest is due to a continuous synchronological connection between the histories of Sri Lanka and of India. It is not indicated that the dates should be taken as authentic, falling as they do within the uncertain periods of Indo-Sri Lankan history. But that the succession originated in India itself cannot be definitely ruled out.

When these circumstances are collectively considered, the indication is that the traditional interval of 218 years may also be traced to India. Strictly speaking, there is no Indian evidence for it. But there seems to be nothing demonstrable against the probability that these earliest of Sri Lankan chronological references and of the succession of theras have emanated from India, from which country the religion was introduced to Sri Lanka.

The year in which Mahinda arrived was the first year of Devānampiya Tissa who, according to Sri Lankan chronology, was consecrated 236 years after the passing away of the Buddha. This figure is thus seen to be merely a continuation of the traditional reckoning. The traditional reckoning found its earliest external confirmatory synchronism in the fifth century A.C. In the monograph an Sri Lanka relating the history of the Soung dynasty in Pieu-Tien, an embassy from Sri Lankan king styled Ts'a-b' Mo-ho-nan, is recorded as having been received in the fifth year of Iuen-kia which scholars have taken as 428 A.C. The Sri Lankan king has been identified with Mahānāma (406-428 A.C.) who was the only Sri Lankan king by that name. The embassy could be dated to 428 A.C, only if the traditional date of 543 B.C. for the parinibbana of the Buddha were accepted.

Another Chinese record provides an Indo-Sri Lankan synchronism when it mentions a request of Sirimeghavanna to the Indian emperor Samudragupta for permission to erect a monastery at Buddhagaya for pilgrim monks from Sri Lanka. The regnal years of the two rulers fall, however, within both of the periods calculated from 543 or 483 B.C. for the passing away of the Buddha. These synchronisms are suplemented by at least three others.

The first Chinese synchronism, however, provides irrefutable proof that in fifth century Sri Lanka the year of the Buddha's parinibbāna was reckoned as 543 B.C., whether or not the actual event took place in that year.

483 B.C.

This is the most widely known date. Its chief advocates for Sri Lanka have been Geiger and Paranavitana who discussed it exhaustively in the Introduction to the English translations of Mahāvaṃsa and of Cūlavamsa (Pt. II), and in the Epigraphia Zeylanica Vol. Ill respectively. The stand taken by them led them to the belief that the Sri Lankan chroniclers manipulated the dates in the regnal years of Sri Lankan kings, which rendered a period of 60 years that needed to be explained. This adjustment was tentatively (e.g. from Devānampiya Tissa to Elara) traced back to certain periods which they considered vague, so that when the "excess" was deducted from 543 B.C., the 483 B.C. was reached. They also held the view that there was, in Sri Lanka the traces of an era reckoned from 483 B.C.

This view that Sri Lanka shows traces of the use of an era starting with 483 B.C., has since been completely rejected. As shown in the discussion on 543 B.C., it is certainly clear that 483 B.C., is incompatible with the Chinese synchronism of 428 A.C.

The consecration of Asoka took place, according to the earliest Sri Lankan sources, in the 219th year after the parinibbāna of the Buddha. Reckoned from 543 B.C. this
would fall in 324 B.C. Asoka was preceded by his father Bindusāra who in turn ruled after his father, Chandragupta, the founder of the Maurya dynasty. The traditions of India, Sri Lanka and Burma completely agree on the length of Chandragupta's reign to have been 24 years. But to that of Bindusāra the Indian Purānic tradition assigns 25, and the others 28 - so that there is a difference of 3 years. We may take it that Chandragupta, reckoned from 543 B.C., came to the throne in 382 B.C. (Purānic: 379 B.C.).

Here there appears to be a difficulty. The names of certain Greek kings appear in some of Asoka's rock-edicts, more particularly at Girnar (Xlll-r-e), and their regnal years have been considered and fairly fixed from Greek and Roman sources. The Greek king Seleucus Nikator, who invaded India after the death in 323 B.C. of Alexander the Great, was halted by the Indian king "Sandrakottos of Palimbothra" with whom he made a treaty. "Sandrakottos of Palimbothra" was identified as Chandragupta of Pataliputra, that is, Asoka's grandfather. The date of the treaty has been fixed as 304 B.C., again according to Greek and Roman chronology. Chandragupta would have ascended the throne between the 323 and 304 B.C. being the points of time indicated between the death of Alexander the Great and the treaty with Seleucus Nikator. Asoka's consecration depends on that of Chandragupta and the latter can hardly be placed, according to this reckoning later that 320 B.C. (Purānic: 317 B.C.). The upper limit for Chandragupta's accession being the death of Alexander the Great, and the lower being the Purānic date, (i.e. between 323 and 317 B.C.), a working date of 320 B.C. has been accordingly accepted for this founder of the Maurya dynasty. This would bring down by 60 years the date of the consecration of Asoka (which took place four years after he had mounted the throne) and place the event in 264 B.C. (Purānic: 261 B.C.). Thus there is greater reason to incline towards 483 B.C. than to 543 B.C. as the year of the Buddha's parinibbāna.

It will be seen that the dating above arrived at rest on the primary assumption that the Greek and Roman chronology is, more or less fixed fairly securely. But a reputed Indian authority on the Calendar opined that the Olympian era of the ancient Greeks and the era of foundation of Rome are artificial eras, whose beginnings are shrouded in mystery.

In the face of this it would be unscientific to use Greek and Roman classical chronology as our measures.

The Sarvāstivādin Tradition:

Against the interval of 218 years adopted in the Sri Lankan tradition, between the Buddha's parinibbāna and the consecration of Asoka, the Sarvastivādin tradition, as reflected in Avadāna s'ataka (repeated in the Divyāvadāna), attributes 100 years. This school of thought, too, is of the Hinayāna and the tradition was taken over to the Chinese from the Sanskrit and thereafter to the Tibetan which repeats it. Besides the difference in the length of the interval, the season in which the Buddha's parinibbāna took place is also variantly described, the Sri Lankan sources calling it Vais'ākha (May-June) and the others implying the months of December-January, following which seems to be supported by the botanical evidence of the off-season flowering of the shorts robusta (sāla) trees by the death-couch.

If the Northern tradition, be its origin an Indian source, were aligned to 543 B.C., we should get 662 B.C. as the year of the Buddha's parinibbana occurred so far back in time as 662 B.C. As a matter of fact, the trend is in the opposite direction, to place it conservatively later. Therefore 662 B.C. should not be seriously considered. For the other two dates to be admissible it must be shown that the Sarvāstivādin tradition excels the Sri Lankan tradition, which has yet to be demostrated. On the other hand it is generally accepted that the Sarvāstivādin tradition is not canonical, whilst the other manifestly is; and it has been stated (in some instances, at any rate) that "the Pali version of the school of the Theravādins proves itself to be the most faithful preserver of an earlier tradition" (E. Waldschmidt), an opinion to which Hermann Oldenberg had earlier tended after his examination of the Vinaya Pitaka. Furthermore the figure 100 is mentioned, in these two Sarvāstivāidin books and their Tibetan translation, in connection with a pseudo-prophecy, which is also its context in the Dīpavamsa, where the same figure is specified or implied in the earlier portion. It is necessary, however, to note that the figure was ignored in Sri Lanka if not rejected, when plain and simple chronological statements came to be categorically made in regard to events as such, so that the Sri Lankan tradition persisted in the figure 218 in its subsequent literature, and did not go by 100.

The same reasoning can be applied to 501 B.C. But against 365 B.C. a further objection might be made. This date is less than half a century prior to the death of Alexander the Great on the supposition that the Greek dates are final. It is difficult, therefore, to be rid of the impression that it is too "modern", comparatively-speaking, too close to certain "historic" events by Greek and Roman reckoning. At any rate this date requires the basic assumption that the Northern sources are preferable to the Sri Lankan which is not warranted by the results of critical scholarship.

The incompatibility of the season of the Buddha's parinibbāna is not vital to the argument. The clear-cut issue is of the year of the event. All the early sources being merely compilations by different people at different times from different material, it is easy enough to explain away such immaterial points in the absence of irrefutable evidence to the contrary. This is particularly the case when it seems that there was a manifest desire to place the Buddha's parinibbāna, birth and Enlightenment to the same seasons, that is Vais'ākha. (May-June) to fix attention on an inconsequential detail is to lose the sense of proportion.

We may thus conclude that there is less reason to attach ourselves to the Sarvāstivādin tradition which, translated into our system of chronology, would place the parinibbāna of the Buddha to B.C. 662 or 501 or 365. The round figure 100, which gives rise to these dates, is more artificial and suspicious than the odd 218 found in the Sri Lankan sources which were derived from the Pali. It is also well to remember that the scholars who removed sixty years from the regnal years of certain early Sri Lankan kings in order to arrive at 483 B.C., were led to do so by the roundness of the figures given to the lengths of their reigns which figures they held to be specious. If their attitude is justified, it should be equally applicable to the Sarvāstivādin figure of 100. It is also pertinent to consider the supposition that the Sarvāstivādins confused Asoka with Kālāsoka.

Other Principal Dates

Among the three best known of other dates which have been offered by scholars, both Eastern and Western, are 485, 486 and 487 B.C. This sequence is obviously based on the Chinese Dotted Record about which a few words are necessary.

After the Vinaya recital at the First Council (sangīti), which was held on July 15th following the Buddha's parinibbāna Upāli signed the closure of the assembly by placing a dot. The succeeding disciples added to this, with one dot for each year. Sanghabhadra, "who is said to have been a samana of the Western region, a name often used for "India" of course including Sri Lanka (Takakusu) was in China in 489 A.C. He is said to have asked the samana Kung-ku why the marking had not been continued from that year, after which it is claimed to have been kept up till 535 A.C. Sanghabhadra, who had the Samantapāsādikā translated into Chinese, placed a dot in 489 A.C. to mark the end of his labour. There was then a total of 975 dots, which would give 486 B.C. for the year of the Buddha's parinibbana. This is the note current in the Shushotenki (The Dotted by Many Disciples).

Now in regard to the year of the sangīti there are two opinions, one that it took place in the year of the parinibbāna and the other in the year following - as accepted by Ta-t' ang-hsi-yu-chi. "Sanghabhadra's date of the Buddha, B.C. 486, was not quite unknown to the Buddhist writers in China, but was never considered as authoritative" (Takakusu). Authoritative opinion has been expressed that it was most unlikely that it was free from error seeing that the marking had extended over a period of nearly one thousand years.

It is interesting to note that one form of the Khotan tradition places Asoka 250 years after the parinibbāna of Sri Lankan one.

The years 949, 463, 386 and 383 B.C., too, are sometimes assigned, but they have no scientific basic and are interesting only to show the differences of opinion which exist in regard dins or Tibetans and is suprisingly close to to an important event.

Conclusion

In the early discussions the year adopted was 477 B.C. It was based on an erroneous reckoning of the date of Chandragupta's accession as 315 B.C.

It will be seen from the foregoing that there is a greater degree of agreement among scholars than there had been some decades ago. In fact, should 483 B.C. be accepted, the differences of opinion is mainly in the range of some two or three years. Nevertheless, this is no ground for accepting the year 483 B.C.

In fine, all that can be presently stated is that each major date is beset with own difficulties. There is no consensus of opinion, because unimpeachable evidence is wanting, that the parinibbāna of the Buddha occurred in such and such a year. In the present state of knowledge it would appear that we shall have to revert to 543 B.C. as, at least, a sign-post. It may be mentioned as a matter of record, that the year 2500 Buddha Jayanti, calculated from 543 B. C. as marking the parinibbāna of the Buddha and commencement of the Buddhist Era, was inaugurated on Vais'ākha Day (May-23rd/24th 1956) in all Theravada countries with wide celebrations. The Buddhist groups in Western lands, as well as most Mahāyāna lands, participated in them in deference to the early traditional date."

[Quelle: D. T. Devendra. -- In: Encyclopaedia of Buddhism. -- Colombo : Government of Sri Lanka. -- Band: 5: Earth - Japan / honorary consultant ed.: Ananda W. P. Guruge. - -1993. -- XIV, 639 S. : Ill. -- S. 118 - 122]

13. Sattāhāni tahiṃ satta,
so vimuttisukhaṃ paraṃ;
vindan taṃmadhurattañ ca,
dassayanto vasī vasi.

13. Sieben Wochen lang weilte er dort, über sich selbst mächtig, das höchste Glück der Erlösung findend und diese Süße zeigend.

14. Tato Bārāṇasiṃ gantvā,
dhammacakkaṃ pavattayi;
tattha vassaṃ vasanto ’vaa,
saṭṭhiṃ arahataṃ akā.

a Geiger: ca

14. Dann ging er nach Benares und setzte das Rad der Lehre in Bewegung. Während der Regenzeit, die er dort verbrachte, brachte er sechzig Menschen zur Arahatschaft1.

Kommentar:

1 Arahatschaft:

Arahanta m. -- Arahats
  1. sukkha-vipassaka m. -- Ein Arahat, der nur die erleuchtende Einsicht verwirklicht hat, ohne irgend eine Beigabe (wie die unten genannten), d.h. einer, der nur die Minimalanforderungen für Arahatschaft verwirklicht hat
     
  2. tevijja m. -- Ein Arahat, der te-vijjā f. -- das dreifache Wissen besitzt (s. II.3.28. ), nämlich:
    1. pubbe-nivāsānussati-ñā.na n. -- Erinnerung an frühere Geburten
    2. cutūpapāta-ñā.na n. -- Erkenntnis des Vergehens und Entstehens der Wesen im Sa.msāra
    3. āsava-kkhaya-ñā.na n. -- Erkenntnis, dass die Triebe (āsava) verschwunden sind
  3. chal-abhiñña m. -- Ein Arahat, der die 6 abhiññā f. -- höheren Geisteskräfte besitzt (s. II.6.1. ), nämlich:
     
    1. iddhi-vidhā f. -- die verschiedenen Fähigkeiten außergewöhnlicher Macht (iddhi):
      1. adhiṭṭhānā iddhi f.: die außergewöhnliche Macht durch Entschluss: jemand entschließt sich z.B., vielfach zu werden
      2. vikuppanā iddhi f.: die außergewöhnliche Macht der Verwandlung: Aufgeben der ursprünglichen Gestalt und Annhmen z.B. der Gestalt einer Kobra, oder eines Armeeteiles
      3. manomayā iddhi f.: die außergewöhnliche Macht des geistgezeugten (Körpers): man lässt einen "Astralleib" hervorgehen
    2. dibba-sota -- das himmlische Ohr: Fähigkeit himmlische und menschliche Töne zu hören, ferne und nahe
    3. parassa ceto-pariyañā.na n. -- das Durchschauen der Herzen anderer: Erkennen des Bewusstseins anderer, ob gierbehaftet usw.
    4. pubbe-nivāsānussati f. -- Erinnerung an frühere eigene Daseinsformen
    5. dibba-cakkhu n. -- das himmlische Auge: man sieht wie andere Wesen vergehen und wiederentstehen
    6. āsava-kkhaya-ñā.na n. -- Wissen um die eigene Triebversiegung
       
  4. paṭisambhida-ppatta m. -- Ein Arahat, der die vier paṭisambhidā f. -- sprachlichen Fähigkeiten besitzt (s. II.4.20. ), nämlich:
    1. attha-paṭisambhidā f. -- klares Wissen um das Bezeichnete
    2. dhamma-paṭisambhidā f. -- klares Wissen um das Bezeichnende (Worte, Ausdrücke, Silben)
    3. nirutti-paṭisambhidā f. -- klares Wissen der sprachlichen Regeln
    4. paṭibhāna-paṭisambhidā f. -- klares Wissen von den rhetorischen Regeln (der Schlagfertigkeit)

Ein Arahat hat alle zehn sa.myojana n. -- Fesseln (s. Dhammavibhāga II.10.6. ) überwunden

(s. Dammavibhāga II.4.5.). Die gegenwärtige Geburt ist seine letzte Geburt.

Ariya-puggala m. -- Edle Personen
  1. sotāpanna m. -- Stromeingetretener (s. Dammavibhāga II.3.37. ): hat die ersten drei sa.myojana n. -- Fesseln (s. Dammavibhāga II.10.6. ) überwunden, nämlich:
    • 1. sakkāya-diṭṭhi f. -- Falscher Glaube an ein Ich
    • 2. vicikicchā f. -- Zweifel
    • 3. sīla-bbata-parāmasa m. -- Hängen an Sittlichkeit und religiösen Gelübden
  2. sakad-āgāmī m. -- Einmalwiederkehrer: hat die ersten drei sa.myojana n. -- Fesseln überwunden; hat nur noch ganz schwach folgende Fesseln:
    • 4. kāma-chanda m. -- Gier nach Objekten der Sinneswelt
    • 5. vyāpāda m. -- Übelwollen
  3. an-āgāmī m. -- Nicht-Wiederkehrer (s. Dammavibhāga II.5.13.) hat die ersten fünf sa.myojana n. -- Fesseln (d.h. alle niederen Fesseln) überwunden.
     
  4. arahanta m. -- Arahat (s. Dammavibhāga II.4.4.) hat alle zehn sa.myojana n. -- Fesseln überwunden, nämlich die genannten niedrigen und folgende höhere:
    • 6. rūpa-rāga m. -- Gier nach der feinstofflichen Welt der Formen
    • 7. a-rūpa-rāga m. -- Gier nach der unstofflichen Welt
    • 8. māna m. -- Abhängigkeit vom sozialen Feld
    • 9. uddhacca n. -- Aufgeregtheit
    • 10. avijjā f. -- Nichtwissen

(z.B. Mahālisutta : Dīghanikāya I, 156; Nal I, 133, 1-19; Th 9, 199 - 120)

15. Te dhammadesanatthāya,
vissajjetvāna bhikkhavo;
vinetvā ca tato tiṃsa
sahāye Bhaddavaggiye.

15. Er entsandte diese sechzig Arhats, auf dass sie die Lehre verkündeten. Er führte die dreißig Gefährten der Gruppe Bhadda1's auf den richtigen Weg.

Kommentar:

1 Gruppe Bhadda's

"Bhaddavāggiyā

A group of thirty young men, converted by the Buddha.

They had gone picnicking with their wives in a forest glade between Bārānasi and Uruvelā. One of them had no wife, and for him they found a courtesan; but she awaited the opportunity and ran away with their goods.

While seeking for her, they saw the Buddha and enquired if he had seen a woman. But he answered, should they not rather seek the "self" than a woman. They all agreed thereto, and he preached to them. At the end of the sermon they realized the Truth and were ordained (Vin.i.23f.; DhA.ii.33f).

Their conversion was one of the subjects sculptured in the Relic Chamber of the Mahā Thūpa. Mhv.xxx.79.

According to the Extended Mahāvaṃsa (i.298) they were the step-brothers of the king of Kosala."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s.v.]

16. Sahassajaṭile nātho,
vinetuṃ Kassapādike;
hemante Uruvelāyaṃ,
vasi te paripācayaṃ.

16. Dann weilte der Herr im Winter in Uruvelā1 und machte die 1000 Haarflechtenträger, Kassapa2 und die anderen, reif, um sie auf den richtigen Weg zu führen.

Kommentar:

1 Uruvelā s. oben zu Vers 12


Abb.: Lage von Uruvelā
(©MS Encarta)

2 nämlich Uruvela-Kassapa: siehe unten zu Vers. 17


Paralleltext im Dīpavaṃsa (I, 6 - 44):

6 Āsabhaṃ ṭhānapallaṅkaṃ acalaṃ daḷham akampitaṃ,
caturaṅge patiṭṭhāya nisīdi purisuttamo.
7 Nisajja pallaṅkavare narāsabho
dumindamūle dipadānam uttamo,
na chambhati vītabhayo va kesarī
disvāna Māraṃ saha senavāhanaṃ.
8 Māravādaṃ bhiditvāna vitrāsetvā sasenakaṃ,
jayo attamano dhīro santacitto samāhito.
9 Vipassanākammaṭṭhānaṃ manasikārañ ca yoniso,
sammasī bahuvidhaṃ dhammaṃ anekākāranissitaṃ.
10 Pubbenivāsañāṇañ ca dibbacakkhuñ ca cakkhumā,
sammasanto mahāñāṇī yāme tayo  atikkami.
11 Tato pacchimayāmamhi paccayākāraṃ vivaṭṭayi,
anulomaṃ paṭilomañ ca manas| ākā sirīghano.
12 Ñatvā dhammaṃ pariññāya pahānaṃ maggabhāvanaṃ,
anussāsi mahāñāṇī vimutto upadhisaṅkhaye.
13  Sabbaññatañāṇavaraṃ abhisambuddho mahāmuni,
buddho buddho ti taṃ nāmaṃ samaññā paṭhamaṃ ahu.
14 Bujjhitvā sabbadhammānaṃ udānaṃ kavā pabhaṅkaro,
tad eva pallaṅkavare sattāhaṃ vītināmayī.
15 Samītasabbasantāso katakicco anāsavo,
udaggo sumano haṭṭho vicintesi bahuṃ hitaṃ.
16 Khaṇe khaṇe laye buddho sabbalokam avekkhati,
pañcacakkhu vivaritvā olokesi bahū jane.
17 Anāvaraṇañāṇaṃ taṃ pesesi dipaduttamo,
addasa vīrajo satthā Laṅkādīpaṃ varuttamaṃ.
18 Sudesaṃ utusampannaṃ subhikkhaṃ ratanākaraṃ,
pubbabuddhamanuciṇṇaṃ ariyagaṇasevitaṃ.
19 Laṅkādīpavaraṃ disvā sukhettaṃ ariyālayaṃ,
Ñatvā kālam akālañ ca vīcintesi anuggaho.
20 Laṅkādīpe imaṃ kālaṃ yakkhabhūtā ca rakkhasā,
sabbe buddhapatikuṭṭhā sakkā uddharituṃ balaṃ.
21 Nīharitvā yakkhagaṇe pisāce avaruddhake,
khemaṃ katvāna taṃ dīpaṃ vasāpessāmi mānuse.
22 Tiṭṭhantesu ca ime pāpe yāvatāyuṃ asesato,
sāsanantaraṃ bhavissati Laṅkādīpavare tahiṃ.
23 Uddharitvān' ahaṃ satte pasādetvā bahū jane,
ācikkhitvāna taṃ maggaṃ añjasaṃ ariyāpathaṃ.
24 Anupādā parinibbāyi suriyo athaṃgato yathā,
parinibbute catumāse hessati paṭhamasaṅgaho.
25 Tato paraṃ vassasate vassān' aṭṭhārasāni ca,
tatiyo saṅgaho hoti pavattathāya sāsanaṃ.
26 Imasmiṃ Jambudīpamhi bhavissati mahīpati,
mahāpuñño tejavanto Asokadhammo ti vissuto.
27 Tassa rañño Asokassa putto hessati paṇḍito
Mahindo sutasampanno Laṅkādīpaṃ pasādayaṃ.
28 Buddho ñatvā imaṃ hetuṃ bahuṃ athūpasaṃhitaṃ
kālākālaṃ imaṃ dīpaṃ ārakkhaṃ sugato kari.
29 Pallaṅkaṃ animisaṃ ca caṅkamaṃ ratanāgharaṃ,
Ajapālamucalido khīrapālena sattamaṃ.
30 Sattasattāhakaraṇīyaṃ katvāna vividhaṃ jino,
Bārāṇasiṃ gato vīro dhammacakkaṃ pavattituṃ,
31 Dhammacakkaṃ pavattento pakāsento dhammam uttamaṃ
aṭṭhārasannaṃ koṭīnaṃ dhammābhisamayo ahū.
32 Koṇḍañño Bhaddiyo Vappo Mahānāmo ca Assajī,
Ete pañca mahātherā vimuttā anattalakkhaṇe
33 Yasasahāyā cattāri puna paññāsa dārake,
Bārāṇasi Isipatane vasanto uddharī jino.
34 Bārāṇasiṃ vasitvāna vuthavasso tathāgato,
Kappāsike vanasaṇḍe uddhari Bhaddavaggiye.
35 Anupubbaṃ caramāno Uruvelam avasari,
addasa virajo satthā Uruvelakassapaṃ jaṭiṃ.
36 Agyāgāre ahināgaṃ damesi purisuttamo,
disvā acchariyaṃ sabbe nimantiṃsu tathāgataṃ.
37 Hemantaṃ cātumāsamhi idha vihara Gotama,
mayaṃ taṃ niccabhattena sadā upaṭṭhahāmase.
38 Uruvelāyaṃ hemante vasamāno tathāgato,
jaṭile sapārisajje vinesi purisāsabho.
39 Mahāyaññaṃ pakappiṃsu Aṅgā ca Magadhā ubho,
disvā yaññe mahālābhaṃ vicintesi ayoniso.
40 Mahiddhiko mahāsamaṇo ānubhāvaṃ ca taṃ mahā,
Sace mahājanakāye vikubbeyya katheyya vā.
41 Parihāyissati me lābho Gotamassa bhavissati,
aho nūna mahāsamaṇo nāgaccheyya samāgamaṃ
42 Caritaṃ adhimuttiṃ ca āsayaṃ ca anūsayaṃ,
cittassa soḷasākāre vijānāti tathāgato.
43 Jaṭilassa cintitaṃ ñatvā paracittavidū muni,
piṇḍapātaṃ Kurudīpe gantvāna mahāiddhiyā
44 Anotattadahe buddho paribhuñjitvāna bhojanaṃ,
tatha jhānasamāpattiṃ samāpajji bahuṃ hitaṃ.

 

"6. On the immovable, firm, unshaken throne, a place worthy of the eminent one, the highest of men sat down, establishing himself in the four branches (of fortitude). 7. Seated on this most excellent throne, at the foot of the king of trees, the chief of men, the highest among human beings, like a fearless lion, did not tremble, when he saw Māra with the hosts of his army. 8. Having overcome the dispute of Māra and put him to flight together with his army, the Conqueror, full of joy, wise, tranquil, and steadfast, — 9. mastered the state of meditation which consists in spiritual insight, and the thorough perfection of attention, (and also the knowledge of) many various qualities, distinguished by manifold attributes. 10. Mastering the knowledge of former existences and the gift of supernatural vision, the enlightened great Sage spent three watches of the night. 11. Thereafter, in the last watch, he revolved (in his mind) the causes of existence; the glorious One fixed the mind on them in direct and reverse order. 12. Having thoroughly understood the Dhamma, the highly wise One, who had reached emancipation by the destruction of human passions, taught (created beings) the abandonment (of temporal obstacles) and the attainment of the path (to sanctification). 13. The great Sage obtained ("abhisambuddha") the most excellent knowledge of omniscience. Thus first arose the title „Buddha, Buddha". 14. Having penetrated all qualities and uttered his proclamation (of triumph) [This proclamation of triumph is the famous stanza, Dhp., v. 163.], the light-giver then spent seven days on that most excellent throne. 15. He in whom all fear had ceased, who had performed his duties and was free from sin, delighted, glad, and joyful, thought many kind thoughts. 16. In one moment, in one instant a Buddha surveys the whole world; he unveiled his fivefold power of vision and looked down over many people. 17. The highest of men sent forth the irresistible power of his knowledge; the stainless teacher then saw the most excellent Lankādīpa, — 18. an exquisite country, endowed with a beautiful climate, fertile, a mine of treasures, which had been visited by former Buddhas and had been inhabited by multitudes of Saints. 19. Perceiving the most excellent island of Lankā, a fertile region, a dwelling-place fit for Saints, the compassionate One who well understood the right and wrong time, thus thought: 20. „In the present time Yakkhas, Bhūtas and Rakkhasas (inhabit) Lankādīpa, who are all too low for (adopting the doctrine of) the Buddhas; their power I can outroot. 21. Having driven out the hosts of Yakkhas, the Pisācas and Avaruddhakas, I will establish peace in the island and cause it to be inhabited by men. 22. ... Let those wicked beings fully live out their span of life; (afterwards) there, in the most excellent Lankādīpa, an opportunity will arise for (the propagation of) the Faith. 23. Having removed (those) beings, having comforted many people and taught them the way, the road, the path of Saints, — 24. I shall reach complete Parinibbāna like the setting sun. Four months after my Parinibbāna the first convocation will be held ...; 25. a hundred and eighteen years later the third convocation will take place, for the sake of the propagation of the Faith. [A mention of the second convocation, which was held a hundred years after Buddha's death, is wanting in the MSS.; the third is said to have been held 118 years after the second.] 26. Then there will be a ruler over this Jambudīpa, a highly virtuous, glorious monarch known as Dhammāsoka. 27. This king Asoka will have a son, a clever man, Mahinda, the learned converter of Lankādīpa." 28. Having foreseen these circumstances which were full of importance, (and understanding) the right and wrong time, the blessed Buddha placed a (divine) guard over this island. 29. 30. The Jina, having performed his various duties during the seven-times seven days (at the following places, that is) the throne, the Animisa (Cetiya) the cloister, the jewel-house, the Ajapāla and Mucalinda trees, and seventhly near the Khirapāla grove, the hero went to Bārānasī in order to establish the kingdom of the Truth. 31. When he established the kingdom of the Truth and preached the most excellent Truth, the conversion of eighteen kotis of beings took place. 32. Kondañña, Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahānāma, and Assaji, these five great Theras attained emancipation when he had preached the Anattalakkhana discourse. 33. Residing in Bārānasī, in Isipatana, the Jina released the four friends of Yasa and, besides, the fifty youths. 34. Having spent the rainy season in Bārānasī, the Tathāgata released in the Kappāsika grove the Bhaddavaggiyas. 35. Wandering thence from place to place, he came to Uruvela; there the stainless Teacher saw Uruvelakassapa, an ascetic of the Jatila sect. 36. In the room where Kassapa kept his sacred fire, the highest of men conquered a serpent. Witnessing this miracle they all invited the Tathāgata: 37. „Reside here, o Gotama, during the four winter months; we will daily provide you with rice." 38. The Tathāgata, the chief of men, residing during the winter in Uruvela, devoted himself to the conversion of the Jatilas together with their followers. 39. (Once, during that period,) both Angas and Magadhas prepared a great sacrifice. (Kassapa), seeing that great gains (could be obtained) at this sacrifice, conceived the following ignoble thought: 40. 41. „The great Samana possesses high (magical) powers and great faculties; if he shall perform miracles or preach in the great assembly, the fee will escape me and go to Gotama. Well, the great Samana should not appear in the assembly." 42. The Tathāgata understands action and resolution, intention and desire, the sixteen constituent parts of thought. 43. Having understood the thought of the Jatila, the Sage, who looks through the minds of other men, went by his high (magical) power to (Uttara-) Kurudīpa collecting alms. 44. Near the Anotatta lake Buddha took his meal; there he gave himself up to meditation (jhāna) and compassionate thoughts."

[Quelle: Dipavamsa : an ancient historical record / ed. and translated by Hermann Oldenberg [1854 - 1920]. -- 1879. -- S. 117 - 120.]


4. Buddhas Besuch in Mahiyaṅgaṇa


Kommentar:

Hauptzweck dieses Abschnitts ist, zu "zeigen", dass Lankā dem Buddha (und damit den Buddisten) gehört, da die Ureinwohner Lankā dem Buddha geschenkt haben und von Buddha nach Giridīpa umgesiedelt wurden. Damit ist die heute so zum Unfrieden beitragende "Mahāvaṃsa-Ideologie" geschaffen: Sri Lanka gehört den (singhalesischen) Buddhisten. Gleichzeitig wird die Legende des Mahiyaṅgaṇa-Stūpa erzählt.

17. Uruvelakassapassa,
mahāyaññe upaṭṭhite;
tassattano nāgamane,
 icchācāraṃ vijāniya.
18. Uttarakuruto bhikkhaṃ,
āharitvārimaddano;
Anotattadahe bhutvā,
sāyaṇhasamaye sayaṃ.
19. Bodhito navame māse,
Phussapuṇṇamiyaṃ jino;
Laṅkādīpaṃ visodhetuṃ,
Laṅkādīpam upāgami.

17. /18./19. Als sich das große Opfer des Uruvelakassapa1 näherte und er erkannte, dass dieser nicht wollte, dass Buddha Gotama zu diesem Opfer käme, sammelte der Feindezerschmetterer bei den Uttarakuru2 Almosenspeise, aß sie beim Anotatta-See3, und dann ging der Eroberer am Abend4, am Vollmondtag des Monats Phussa [dem 10. Monat des Jahres], im neunten Monat seit seinem Erwachen, zur Insel Lankā, um die Insel Lankā zu reinigen. [d.h. nach der Theravādachronologie im Jahre 588 v. Chr.]

Kommentar:

1 Uruvelakassapa

"Uruvela-Kassapa

One of three brothers, the Tebhātika-Jatilas, living at Uruvelā. He lived on the banks of the Nerañjarā with five hundred disciples. Further down the river lived his brothers Nadī-Kassapa with three hundred disciples and Gayā-Kassapa with two hundred. The Buddha visited Uruvela-Kassapa and took lodging for the night where the sacred fire was kept, in spite of Kassapa's warning that the spot was inhabited by a fierce Nāga. The Buddha, by his magical powers, overcame, first this Nāga and then another, both of whom vomited fire and smoke. Kassapa being pleased with this exhibition of iddhi-power, undertook to provide the Buddha with his daily food. Meanwhile the Buddha stayed in a grove near by, waiting for the time when Kassapa should be ready for conversion. Here he was visited by the Four Regent Gods, Sakka, Brahmā and others. The Buddha spent the whole rainy season there, performing, in all, three thousand five hundred miracles of various kinds, reading the thoughts of Kassapa, splitting firewood for the ascetics' sacrifices, heating stoves for them to use after bathing in the cold weather, etc. Still Kassapa persisted in the thought, "The great ascetic is of great magic power, but he is not an arahant like me." Finally the Buddha decided to startle him by declaring that he was not an arahant, neither did the way he followed lead to arahantship. Thereupon Kassapa owned defeat and reverently asked for ordination. The Buddha asked him to consult with his pupils, and they cut off their hair and threw it with their sacrificial utensils into the river and were all ordained. Nadī-Kassapa and Gayā-Kassapa came to inquire what had happened, and they, too, were ordained with their pupils. At Gayāsīsa the Buddha preached to them the Fire Sermon (Āditta-pariyāya), and they all attained arahantship.

From Gayāsīsa the Buddha went to Rājagaha with the Kassapas and their pupils, and in the presence of Bimbisāra and the assembled populace Uruvela-Kassapa declared his allegiance to the Buddha.1

Later, in the assembly of monks, Uruvela-Kassapa was declared to be the chief of those who had large followings (aggam mahaparisanam)."

1 Vinaya I, 24ff.; AA I, 1565f; ThaG I, 434ff.

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- I, 432f.]

2 Uttarakuru


Abb.: "Lage" des Kontinents Uttarakuru

3 Anotatta-See: ein mythischer See im Himālāya

"Anotatta

One of the seven great lakes of Himavā.

The others being Kannamunda, Rathakāra, Chaddanta, Kunāla, Mandākinī and Sīhappapāta. It is surrounded by five mountain peaks, Sudassanakūta, Citrakūta, Kālakūta, Gandhamādana and Kelāsa.  

Sudassanakūta is concave, shaped like a crow's beak and overshadows the whole lake, which is hidden also by the other peaks. The lake is 150 leagues long, 50 leagues wide and 50 leagues deep. All the rains that fall on the five peaks and all the rivers that rise in them flow into the lake. The light of the sun and of the moon never falls directly on the, water but only in reflection. This means that the water is always cool, hence the name.  

Many bathing places are found therein free from fish and tortoises, with crystal clear waters, where Buddhas, Pacceka Buddhas and arahants bathe, and whither devas and yakkhas come for sport. Four channels open out of the lake in the direction of the four quarters: Sīhamukha, Hatthimukha, Assamukha and Usabhamukha. Lions abound on the banks of the Sīhamukha; elephants, horses and cattle respectively on the others. Four rivers flow from these channels; the eastward river encircles the lake three times, waters the non-human regions of Himavā and enters the ocean. The rivers that flow north and westward flow in those directions through regions inhabited by non-humans and also enter the ocean. The southward river, like the eastward, flows three times round the lake and then straight south over a rocky channel for sixty leagues and then down a precipice, forming a cascade six miles in width. For sixty leagues the water dashes through the air on to a rock named Tiyaggala, whereon by the force of the impact of the waters the Tiyaggalapokkharani has been formed, fifty leagues deep. From this lake the waters run through a rocky chasm for sixty leagues, then underground for sixty leagues to an oblique mountain, Vijjha, where the stream divides into five, like the fingers of the hand. The part of this river which encircles the original lake Anotatta is called Āvattagangā; the sixty leagues of stream which run over the rocky channel, Kanhagangā; the sixty leagues of waterfall in the air, Ākāsagangā; the sixty leagues flowing out of the Tiyaggala-pokkharanī and through the rocky gorge is called Bahalagangā, and the river underground, Ummaggagangā. The five streams into which the river is divided after leaving the oblique mountain Vijjha are called Gangā, Yamunā, Aciravatī, Sarabhū and Mahī (SnA.ii.407; 437-9; MA.ii.585f.; AA.ii.759-60). 

A wind called Siñcanakavāta (sprinkling wind) takes water from the Anotatta lake and sprinkles the Gandhamādana mountain with it (SnA.i.66). The lake is one of the last to dry up at the end of the world (A.iv.101). To be bathed in the waters of the lake is to be thoroughly cleansed. Thus the Buddha's mother, on the day of her conception, dreamt that she had been taken to the lake and had bathed there. This was interpreted to mean that she would give birth to a holy son (MA.ii.918).

During periods when the world does not possess a Buddha, the Pacceka Buddhas, who dwell in Gandhamādana, come amongst men and wash their faces in the lake before starting on their aerial journey for Isipatana (MA.i.386) or elsewhere (E.g., J.iii.319, iv.368). The Buddha would often go to Anotatta for his ablutions and proceed from there to Uttarakuru for alms, returning to the lake to have his meal and spend the hot part of the day on its banks. E.g., before his visit to Uruvelakassapa (Vin.i.28); and again during the three months he spent in Tāvatimsa (DhA.iii.222); see also J.i.80.

Examples are given of other holy men doing the same. E.g., Mātangapandita, J.iv.379; see also DhA.ii.211. 

There are many bathing-places in the lake; those for the Buddhas, Pacceka Buddhas, monks, ascetics, the Four Regent gods and other inhabitants of the deva-worlds, and for the goddesses, were all separate from each other. In the bathing-place of the goddesses there once arose a dispute between Kālakannī and Sirī as to which should bathe first (J.iii.257ff). Other instances are given of goddesses bathing in the lake and resting on the banks of the Manosilātala next to it (E.g., J.v.392). 

It was considered the summit of iddhi-power to be able to obtain water from Anotatta. Thus, when the Buddha wished to make known the great powers of Sumana-Sāmanera, he expressed a desire to have water fetched from the lake in which to wash his feet; no one was willing or able to fetch it except the novice Sumana (DhA.iv.134ff). And Sona, to show his iddhi to the 101 kings who escorted his brother Nanda to his hermitage, brought water from Anotatta for them and for their retinue (J.v.320-1). To provide water from the lake for the personal use of some eminent person is considered one of the best ways of showing him esteem. Thus, when a friendship was established between the king of the swans, Javahamsa, and the king of Benares, the former brought the famous water from Anotatta to the king for his ablutions (J.iv.213). Pannaka, the Nāga king of Anotatta, promised to supply water to Sumana-Sāmanera as amends for his earlier discourtesy (DhA.iv.134, also ThagA.457 where the story is given in detail); and Nanda, when he wished to ask his brother's forgiveness for disobedience, thought it a good way of showing his repentance to bring him water from the lake (J.v.314). This water had curative powers; Anuruddha's abdominal affliction was cured by its use (DhA.iv.129). To be able to use water from Anotatta daily was a great luxury and a sign of real prosperity. Gods brought to Asoka eight pingo-loads of lake water in sixteen pots for his use (Sp.i.42; Mhv.v.24; 84; xi.30). Vessavana employed yakkhinis to fetch water for him in turn, each turn lasting for four to five months. It was exhausting work and some of them died before their term of service was over (DhA.i.40).

Regular assemblies of the devas and yakkhas were held on the banks of Anotatta, at which contests of skill took place (E.g, among the daughters of Vessavana, demonstrating their ability to dance, VvA.131-2). Sometimes the Buddha would go there with a company of monks and preach or make proclamations (E.g., Ap.i.299). Monks would often dwell there in meditation and come when summoned (Dvy.399).

A mahā-kappa is measured by reckoning the amount of time that would be required to empty the Anotatta lake, by dipping into it a blade of kusa-grass, and shaking out from it one drop of water once in every hundred years (PvA.254).

Just as the water of Anotatta, having ultimately entered the ocean through the Ganges, would never turn back, so the Bodhisatta, in his last birth, would never turn back from his purpose of becoming Buddha for the sake of becoming a cakkavatti (Mil.286-7).

The Divyāvadāna speaks of a class of devas who dwelt near Anotatta, whom it calls Anavatapta-kāyikādevatā (p.153)."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s.v.]

4 am Abend ist hierher zu beziehen, da in Essen am Abend gegen die Asketenregel, nach 12 Uhr mittags nicht mehr zu essen, wäre.

20. Sāsanujjotanaṃ ṭhānaṃ,
Laṃkā ñātā jinena hi;
yakkhapuṇṇāya Laṅkāya,
yakkhā nibbā siyā ti ca.

20. Der Eroberer hatte nämlich erkannt, dass Lankā ein Ort ist, an dem die Lehre leuchten würde. Er erkannte, dass aus Lanka, das voll von Yakkha1 war, die Yakkha vertrieben werden mussten.

Kommentar:

1 Yakkha ist eine Gattung von nichtmenschlichen Wesen. Ihre Einordnung in der Hierarchie der Lebewesen schwankt in den verschiedenen kanonischen Schriften. Yakkha sind teilweise hilfreiche Wesen teilweise schädlich.


Abb.: Yakkha: der Krankheitsdämon Huniyan-Yaksaya mit seinen 18 Helfern. --
Dämonenmaske. -- Sri Lanka (Museum für Völkerkunde, München)


Abb.: Detail: der Krankheitsdämon Huniyan-Yaksaya

"Yakkha

A class of non human beings generally described as amanussā. They are mentioned with Devas, Rakkhasas, Dānavas, Gandhabbas, Kinnaras, and Mahoragas (? Nāgas) (E.g., J.v.420).

In other lists (E.g., PvA. 45, 55) they range immediately above the Petas; in fact, some of the happier Petas are called Yakkhas. Elsewhere (E.g., A.ii.38) they rank, in progressive order, between manussā and gandhabbā. They are of many different kinds: spirits, ogres, dryads, ghosts, spooks. In the early records, yakkha, like nāgā, as an appellative, was anything but depreciative. Thus not only is Sakka, king of the gods, so referred to (M.i.252; J.iv.4; DA.i.264), but even the Buddha is spoken of as a yakkha in poetic diction (M.i.386). Many gods, such as Kakudha, are so addressed (S.i.54).

According to a passage in the Vimānavatthu Commentary, (VvA.333) which gives illustrations, the term is used for Sakka, the Four Regent Gods (Mahārājāno), the followers of Vessavana, and also for puriso (individual soul?). In the scholiast to the Jayadissa Jātaka (J.v.33), the figure of the hare in the moon is also called yakkha. Of these above named, the followers of Vessavana appear to be the Yakkhas proper. The term yakkha as applied to purisa is evidently used in an exceptionally philosophical sense as meaning "soul" in such passages as ettāvatā yakkhassa suddhi (SN.vs.478), or ettāvat' aggam no vadanti h' ekā, yakkhassa suddhim idha pānditāse (SN.vs.875).

In the Niddesa (MNid.282), yakkha is explained by satta, nara, mānava, posa, puggala, jīva, jagu, jantu, indagu, manuja. The last term is significant as showing that yakkha also means "man."

The cult of yakkhas seems to have arisen primarily from the woods and secondarily from the legends of sea faring merchants. To the latter origin belong the stories connected with vimānas found in or near the sea or in lakes. The worship of trees and the spirits inhabitating them is one of the most primitive forms of religion. Some, at least, of the yakkhas are called rukkha devatā (E.g., J.iii.309, 345; Pv.i.9; PvA.5) (spirits of trees), and others bhummadevatā, (PvA.45,55) (spirits of the earth), who, too, seem to have resided in trees. Generally speaking, the Yakkhas were decadent divinities, beings half deified, having a deva's supernormal powers, particularly as regards influencing people, partly helpful, partly harmful. They are sometimes called devatā (E.g., S.i.205), or devaputta (E.g., PvA. 113, 139). Some of these, like Indakūta and Suciloma, are capable of intelligent questioning on metaphysics and ethics. All of them possess supernatural powers; they can transfer themselves at will, to any place, with their abodes, and work miracles, such as assuming any shape at will. An epithet frequently applied is mahiddhika (E.g., Pv.ii.9; J.vi.118). Their appearance is striking as a result of former good kamma (Pv.i.2, 9; ii.11; iv.3, etc.). They are also called kāmakāmī, enjoying all kinds of luxuries (Pv.i.3), but, because of former bad kamma, they are possessed of odd qualities, thus they are shy, they fear palmyra leaf and iron. Their eyes are red and they neither wink nor cast a shadow. J.iv.492; v.34; vi.336, 337; these various characteristics are, obviously, not found in all Yakkhas. The Yakkhas are evidently of different grades -  as is the case with all classes of beings – the highest among them approximate very nearly to the devas and have deva-powers, the lowest resemble petas. The Yakkhas are specially mentioned as being afraid of palm leaves (J.iv.492).

Their abode is their self created palace, which is anywhere, in the air, in trees, etc. These are mostly ākasattha (suspended in the air), but some of them, like the abode of Ālavaka, are bhumattha (on the ground) and are described as being fortified (SNA.i.222). Sometimes whole cities   e.g., Ālakamandā   stand under the protection of, or are inhabited by, Yakkhas.

In many respects they resemble the Vedic Pisācas, though they are of different origin. They are evidently remnants of an ancient demonology and have had incorporated in them old animistic beliefs as representing creatures of the wilds and the forests, some of them based on ethnological features. (See Stede: Gespenstergeschichten des Petavatthu v.39ff ).

In later literature the Yakkhas have been degraded to the state of red eyed cannibal ogres. The female Yakkhas (Yakkhinī) are, in these cases, more fearful and evil minded than the male. They eat flesh and blood (J.iv.549; v.34); and devour even men (D.ii.346; J.ii.15ff.) and corpses (J.i.265). They eat babies (J.v.21; vi.336) and are full of spite and vengeance (DhA.i.47; ii.35f.). The story of Bhūta Thera is interesting because his elder brothers and sisters were devoured by a hostile Yakkha, so the last child is called Bhūta to propitiate the Yakkha by making him the child's sponsor!

Ordinarily the attitude of the Yakkhas towards man is one of benevolence. They are interested in the spiritual welfare of the human beings with whom they come in contact and somewhat resemble tutelary genii. In the Atānātiya Sutta (D.iii.194f), however, the Yakkha king, Vessavana, is represented as telling the Buddha that, for the most part, the Yakkhas believe neither in the Buddha nor in his teachings, which enjoin upon his followers abstention from various evils and are therefore distasteful to some of the Yakkhas. Such Yakkhas are disposed to molest the followers of the Buddha in their woodland haunts. Cp. the story of the Yakkha who wished to kill Sāriputta (Ud.iv.4). But the Mahā Yakkhas (a list in D.iii.204f), the generals and commanders among Yakkhas, are always willing to help holy men and to prevent wicked Yakkhas from hurting them. Among Yakkhas are some beings who are sotāpannas -  e.g., Janavasabha, Suciloma and Khara (s.v.). Some Yakkhas even act as messengers from another world, and will save prospective sinners from committing evil (Pv.iv.1). The case of the Yakkha Vajirapāni is of special interest. D.i.95. The Commentary (DA.i.264) says he is not an ordinary Yakkha, but Sakka himself.

He is represented as a kind of mentor, hovering in the air, threatening to kill Ambattha, if he does not answer the Buddha's question the third time he is asked. In many cases the Yakkhas are "fallen angels" and come eagerly to listen to the word of the Buddha in order to be able to rise to a higher sphere of existence   e.g., Piyankaramātā and Punabbasumātā, and even Vessavana, listening to Velukandakī Nandamātā reciting the Parāyana Vagga (A.iv.63). At the preaching of the Mahāsamaya Sutta (q.v.) many hundreds of thousands of Yakkhas were present among the audience.

It has been pointed out (Stede, op. cit) that the names of the Yakkhas often give us a clue to their origin and function. These are taken from (a) their bodily appearance   e.g., Kuvannā, Khara, Kharaloma, Kharadāthika, Citta, Cittarāja, Silesaloma, Sūciloma and Hāritā; (b) their place of residence, attributes of their realms, animals, plants, etc.   e.g., Ajakalāpaka, Ālavaka (forest dweller), Uppala, Kakudha (name of plant), Kumbhīra, Gumbiya, Disāmukha, Yamamoli, Vajira, Vajirapāni or Vajirabāhu, Sātāgira, Serīsaka; (c) qualities of character, etc.   e.g., Adhamma, Katattha, Dhamma, Punnaka, Māra, Sakata; (d) embodiments of former persons   e.g., Janavasabha (lord of men= Bimbisāra), Dīgha, Naradeva, Pandaka, Sīvaka, Serī.

Vessavana (q.v.) is often mentioned as king of the Yakkhas. He is one of the four Regent Gods, and the Ātānātiya Sutta (D.iii.199ff) contains a vivid description of the Yakkha kingdom of Uttarakuru, with its numerous cities, crowds of inhabitants, parks, lakes and assembly halls. Vessavana is also called Kuvera, and the Yakkhas are his servants and messengers. They wait upon him in turn. The Yakkhinīs draw water for him, and often are so hard worked that many die in his service. E.g., J.iv.492. Mention is also made (e.g., DA.ii.370) of Yakkhadāsīs who have to dance and sing to the devas during the night. Early in the morning they drink a cup of toddy (surā) and go off into a deep sleep, from which they rise betimes in the evening ready for their duties.

No one, apparently, is free from this necessity of waiting upon the king   even Janavasabba has to run errands for Vessavana (D.ii.207). Among the duties of Vessavana is the settling of disputes between the devas, and this keeps him (J.vi.270) much occupied. In this work he is helped by the Yakkhasenāpati, whose business it is to preside over the courts during eight days of each mouth (SNA.i.197). The Yakkhas hold regular assemblies on Manosilātala on the Bhagalavatīpabbata (SNA.i.187; cp. D.iii.201 and DA.iii.967). As followers of Kuvera, lord of riches, the Yakkhas are the guardians and the liberal spenders of underground riches, hidden treasures, etc., with which they delight men. E.g., Pv.ii.11; PvA.145; Pv.iv.12; PvA.274. These were seven yakkhas who guarded the wealth of Jotiyasetthi (DhA.iv.208f.).

It is difficult to decide whether the Yakkhas, who are the aborigines of Ceylon (Lankā), were considered human or non human. Kuvenī, one of their princesses, and her maid, can both assume different forms, but Vijaya marries Kuveni and has two children by her. (Cp. Vin.iii.37; iv. 20; where sexual intercourse with a Yakkha is forbidden). The Yakkhas are invisible, and Vijaya is able to kill them only with the help of Kuveni (Mhv.vii.36); but their clothes are found fit for Vijaya and his followers to wear (Mhv.vii.38). Again, Cetiyā (q.v.) could make herself invisible and assume the form of a mare, but Pandukābhaya lived with her for four years and she gave him counsel in battle. Later, when he held festivities, he had the Yakkha Cittarāja on the throne beside him (Mhv.x.87). In all probability these Yakkhas were originally considered as humans, but later came to be confused with non humans. Their chief cities were Lankāpura and Sirīsavatthu.

The commonly accepted etymology of Yakkha is from the root yaj, meaning to sacrifice. Thus: yajanti tattha balim upaharantī ti yakkha (VvA.224), or pūjanīyabhāvato yakkho, ti uccati (VvA.333)."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s.v.]

21. Ñāto vaa Laṅkāmajjhamhi,
Gaṅgātīre manorame;
tiyojanāyate ramme,
ekayojanavitthate.
22. Mahānāgavanuyyāne,
yakkhasaṅgāmabhūmiyāb;
Laṅkādīpaṭṭhayakkhānaṃ,
mahāyakkhasamāgamo.

a Geiger: ca
b Geiger: -bhūmiyaṃ

21. /22. Es war ihm auch bekannt, dass in der Mitte von Lankā, am lieblichen Ufer der Gaṅgā1, im schönen Mahānāga-Waldpark, dem Versammlungsort der Yakkha, der drei Yojana2 lang und ein Yojana breit war [d.h. ca. 33 x 11 km], eine große Versammlung der auf der Insel Lankā wohnenden Yakkha stattfand.

Kommentar:

1 Gaṅgā: d.h. Mahāvālukagaṅgā = Mahaveliganga


Abb.: Mahaweli Ganga
(©MS Encarta)

2 Yojana: 1 Yojana = Weg, den man mit einem Ochsenjoch pro Tag zurücklegen kann, ca. 11 km

23. Upāgato taṃ sugato,
mahāyakkhasamāgamaṃ;
samāgamassa majjhamhi,
tattha tesaṃ siropari.
24. Mahiyaṅgaṇathūpassa,
ṭhāne vehāyasaṃ jino;
vuṭṭhivātandhakārehia,
tesaṃ saṃvejanaṃ akā.

a Geiger: -andhakāradiṃ

23. / 24. Der Vollendete ging zu dieser großen Yakkhaversammlung und blieb mitten in dieser Versammlung in der Luft über den Köpfen der Yakkha stehen an der Stelle des heutigen Mahiyaṅgaṇa-Stūpa1, und versetzte die Yakkhas in Aufruhr durch Regen, Wind, Finsternis und ähnliches.

Kommentar:


Abb.: Buddhas Besuch in Mahiyaṅgaṇa / von Soliyas Mendis. -- Wandgemälde, Kelaniya Rājamahāvihāraya, um 1945

[Bildquelle: Nanayakkara, Vesak: The temple of Kelaniya. -- Mattegodagama : Academy of Sri Lankan Culture, 1994. -- XI, 154 S. : Ill.; 29 cm. -- ISBN 955-9079-05-0. -- S. 106]

1 Mahiyaṅgaṇa-Stūpa


Abb.: Lage von Kandy (©MS Encarta)


Abb.: Lage des Mahiyaṅgaṇa-Stūpa (©MS Encarta)

Stūpa (Pali: Thūpa) = Reliquienhügel = Cetiya = Dagoba (Sri Lanka) = Pagoda (Birma) = Cedi (Thailand, Laos, Kambodscha)

"A stupa (from the Sanskrit) is a type of Buddhist structure found across the Indian subcontinent, Asia and increasingly in the Western World. Stupas are known in many Southeast Asian countries as chedi (from a Pāli synonym of stupa), and in some countries (particularly Sri Lanka) as dagoba (from Sanskrit dhatu- element, component, or relic + garbha - storehouse or repository).

The stupa is the earliest Buddhist religious monument and was originally only a simple mound made up of mud or clay, or a cairn in barren areas, to cover supposed relics of the Buddha. After the ‘passing away’ of the Buddha his remains were cremated and the ashes divided and buried under eight stupas with two further stupas encasing the urn and the embers. Little is known about these early stupas, particularly since it has not been possible to identify the original ten monuments. However, some later stupas, such as at Sarnath and Sanchi, seem to be embellishments of earlier mounds. In the third century BC, after his conversion to Buddhism, the emperor Ashoka had the original stupas opened and the remains distributed among the several thousand stupas he had built. Nevertheless, the stupas at the eight places associated with the life of the Buddha continued to be of particular importance. Accordingly, the importance of a stupa changed from being a funerary monument to being an object of veneration. As a consequence their appearance changed also.

They evolved into large hemispherical mounds with features such as the torana (gateway), the vedica (fence-like enclosure evolved from the vedic villages), the harmika (a square platform with railings on top of the stupa), chattrayashti (the parasol or canopy) and a circumambulatory around the stupa. From the first century BCE onwards, stupas were incorporated into the hall of the chaitya-griha.


Abb.: Stupa in Sanchi
(Bildquelle: Wikipedia)

The oldest existing stupa is at Sanchi, India, while the tallest is the Phra Pathom Chedi (พระปฐมเจดีย์) in Nakhon Pathom, Thailand, with a height of 127 metres.


Abb.: Phra Pathom Chedi (พระปฐมเจดีย์) in Nakhon Pathom (นครปฐม), Thailand


Buddha relics from Kanishka's (Kushan language: KANHÞKI, Ancient Chinese: 迦腻色伽) stupa in Peshawar (پیشاور), Pakistan, now in Mandalay, Burma. Teresa Merrigan, 2005

The stupa evolved into the pagoda as Buddhism spread to other Asian countries. The pagoda has varied forms that also include bellshaped and pyramidal ones. Today, in the Western context, there is no clear distinction between the stupa and the pagoda. But in general stupa is used for a Buddhist structure of India or south-east Asia, while pagoda refers to a building in east Asia which can be entered and which may be secular in purpose.

Fundamentally, a stupa is essentially made up of the following five constituents:

a). A square base
b). A hemispherical dome
c). A conical spire
d). A crescent moon
e). A circular disc

Each of these components is rich in metaphoric content and is identified with one of the five cosmic elements said to make up the entire manifested existence. These are earth, water, fire, air and space.

Regional names for stupa include:

  • Chaitya - Nepal
  • Candi - Indonesia
  • Chedi - Thailand
  • Chorten - Tibet and Bhutan
  • Dagoba/Chaitiya - Sri Lanka
  • Chedey - Cambodia
  • Tap - Korea
  • That - Laos
  • Ta - China (lit: "tower")
  • Tô - Japan (塔 lit: "tower")"

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stupa. -- Zugriff am 2006-04-22]


Abb.: Umgebung von Mahiyaṅgaṇa
[Bildquelle: Dennis Sylvester Hurd. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/dennissylvesterhurd/50827323/in/set-804644/. -- Creative Commons Lizenz. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-26]

"Mahiyaṅgaṇa (Alutnuvara); Provinz: Uva; Höhe: ca. 223 m ü.d.M.

Auto: Von Kandy über Landstraßen (74 km), von Badulla über die A5 bis Waywatta, von dort über die A26 bis Mahiyaṅgaṇa.
Eisenbahn: Von Colombo bis Kandy (täglich mehrere Verbindungen), von dort weiter mit Omnibus oder Mietfahrzeug.
Omnibus: Täglich Busverbindungen von Kandy, Batticaloa und Badulla.

Die heute kleine Stadt, deren Dagoba alljährlich am Tage des Vollmonds im September das Ziel zahlreicher buddhistischer Wallfahrten ist, liegt in einer großartigen Landschaft am Fuße des zentralen Bergmassivs und am Mahaweli Ganga. Die Besiedelung des Ortes reicht bis in die Zeit vor Christus zurück, und noch im 17. Jh. war Mahiyaṅgaṇa eine blühende Stadt, was nicht zuletzt daran lag, dass einige europäische Gesandtschaften von Batticaloa aus über den bis Mahiyaṅgaṇa schiffbaren Mahaweli Ganga bis nach Kandy gelangten. In der Umgebung von Mahiyaṅgaṇa gibt es noch einige Ansiedlungen der Wedda [s. unten], der Ureinwohner Sri Lankas. Sie werden durch die Regierung besonders geschützt."

[Quelle: Sri Lanka. -- Ostfildern : Baedeker, ©1999. -- (Baedeker Allianz Reiseführer). -- ISBN 3895254371. -- S. 191. -- {Wenn Sie HIER klicken, können Sie dieses Buch  bei amazon.de bestellen}]

Die meisten Wedda leben in der Gegend von Dambana, 19 km östlich von Mahiyaṅgaṇa.

Mahiyaṅgaṇa wurde 1817/18 von den Briten bei der Niederschlagung der Uva-Revolution zerstört: alle Siedlungen, die nicht eine Loyalitätserklärung für die britische Kolonialmacht abgaben wurden zerstört. Eine dieser Siedlungen war Mahiyaṅgaṇa.

25. Te bhayaṭṭhābhayaṃa yakkhā,
ayācuṃ abhayaṃ jinaṃ;
jino abhayado āha,
yakkhe te 'tibhayaddītea.

a Geiger: bhayaṭṭābhayaṃ
b
Geiger: 'tibhayaṭṭīte

25. Voll Furcht baten die Yakkha den Eroberer um Furchtlosigkeit. Der Eroberer, der Geber von Furchtlosigkeit1 sprach zu den überaus verängstigten Yakkha:

Kommentar:

1 Geber von Furchtlosgkeit


Abb.: Stehender Buddha mit Geste des Gebens von Furchtlosigkeit (abhaya-mudrā), Anuradhapura, ca. 400 n. Chr.
[Bildquelle: http://www.buddhistvihara.com/newsletters/2003-winter/the_buddha.htm. -- Zugriff am 2006-04-20]

Dass Angst die Grundstimmung der "freien" Existenz ist, legt der Tierpsychologe Heini Hediger (1908 - 1992), von 1954 bis 1973 Direktor des Zürcher Zoos, klar dar:


Abb.: Heini Hediger

"Nein - zum Lachen im menschlichen Sinn hat das Tier keinen Anlass. Im Freileben ist es ja - von wenigen Ausnahmen abgesehen - dauernd der Bedrohung durch irgendwelche Feinde ausgesetzt. Kein Tier lebt heute in einem feindfreien Raum, ich meine kein freilebendes Wildtier. Der Universalfeind, der Mensch, bedroht die Tiere des ganzen Erdballs, von Pol zu Pol, vom tiefsten Meer bis in die höchsten Gebirge. Das freilebende Wildtier muss dauernd auf der Hut, auf dem Qui vive, sein, d. h. dauernd fluchtbereit, dauernd angespannt im Dienste der Feindvermeidung. Diesen elementaren Tatbestand habe ich wiederholt darzustellen versucht (vgl. Hediger 1961, 1964,1965).


Abb.: Das Tierreich auf der Flucht

[Bildquelle:  Verne, Jules <1828 - 1905>:  Abenteuer von drei Russen und drei Engländern in Südafrika. -- Wien [u.a.] : Hartleben, 1876. -- Originaltitel:  Aventures de trois Russes et de trois Anglais dans l'Afrique australe (1872). -- S. 127. -- In: Verne, Jules <1828 - 1905>: Jules Verne, bekannte und unbekannte Welten [Elektronische Ressource] : das erzählerische Werk / hrsg. von Wolfgang Thadewald. -- Berlin : Directmedia Publ., 2004. -- 1 CD-ROM. --  (Digitale Bibliothek ; 105). -- ISBN 3-89853-505-3 ]

Nicht »der Hunger und die Liebe erhalten das Getriebe«, wie der Dichter Friedrich Schiller meinte, sondern vor allem die dauernde Aufmerksamkeit im Dienste der Feindvermeidung, die ständige Fluchtbereitschaft. Die Stillung des Hungers und die Befriedigung des Geschlechtstriebes können zurückgestellt werden, nicht aber die Flucht vor einem sich nähernden Feind. Insofern lebt das freilebende Tier fast ununterbrochen in einer gewissen Angst (Hediger 1959), insofern als es in kurzen Abständen immer wieder sichern muss. Nicht nur die Sinnesorgane, sondern der ganze Körperbau, das gesamte Verhalten sind auf diese primordiale Aufgabe ausgerichtet.

In dieser ernsten Situation bleiben dem Tier weder Zeit noch Anlass zum Lachen - auch wenn es lachen könnte. Nur in einer Lebensphase, nämlich in der Kindheit, gibt es eine Auflockerung dieses Spannungsfeldes, nämlich dann, wenn das Jungtier unter dem Schutz seiner Eltern steht, die die Sicherung übernehmen. In dieser gelockerten Spannung kann sich denn auch, wie der Psychologe Gustav Bally (1945) sich treffend ausgedrückt hat, das Spiel entfalten. Kein Wunder, dass das Spielen beim Jungtier besonders ausgeprägt ist!"

[Quelle: Hediger, Heini <1908 - 1992>: Tiere verstehen : Erkenntnisse eines Tierpsychologen. -- München : Kindler, 1980. -- 407 S. ; 22 cm. -- ISBN: 3-463-00795-9. -- S. 326f.]

"Wenn wir genauer zusehen, stellt sich heraus, dass nicht in erster Linie die Zugkraft des Pferdes, die Intelligenz des Hundes, die Milchergiebigkeit des Rindes oder die Eierproduktion des Huhnes den Wert der Haustiere für uns Menschen ausmachen, sondern vor allem eine ganz andere Haustiereigenschaft: nämlich das Fehlen der Fluchttendenz, die bei den wilden Stammformen noch von so fundamentaler Bedeutung war. - Auch das leistungsfähigste Pferd, die ergiebigste Milchkuh, wären für uns wertlos, wenn diese Tiere noch mit der unverminderten Fluchttendenz der wilden Stammform ausgestattet wären. Wenn die urtümliche Fluchttendenz auch nur für Augenblicke aufflackert, zum Beispiel beim durchbrennenden Pferd, ist die Katastrophe schon da (vergleiche Kapitel 8). Fluchttendenz schließt die Nutzbarkeit aus. Das zeigen uns die verwilderten Haustiere.

Aufhebung der Fluchttendenz, also Zähmung und Zahmheit, können nur vom Menschen ausgehen; er ist das einzige Geschöpf, das andere Wesen aus dem Fluchtkreis, dem unerbittlichen Zwang der ständigen Feindvermeidung zu befreien vermag. - Der Mensch ist aber auch das einzige Geschöpf, das sich selbst aus dem elementaren Funktionskreis der Flucht zu befreien vermochte. Durch diese Selbstbefreiung stellt sich der Mensch deutlich abseits der übrigen Schöpfung und steht als Universalfeind im Mittelpunkt der tierlichen Fluchtreaktion.

Die Befreiung aus dem Zwang des Fluchtkreises - bei Tier oder Mensch -bedeutet gleichzeitig das Freiwerden gewaltiger Energien, nämlich all der Energien, die vorher durch den Zwang der Feindvermeidung, die ständige Spannung im Dienste der Fluchtbereitschaft gebunden waren. Wenn man sich nochmals vor Augen hält, wie die Macht - oder die Allmacht - der Flucht beim Tier sein ganzes Verhalten dominiert, und wenn man sich vorstellt, dass dieser überragende Faktor, die Flucht, in Wegfall gerät, so stellt sich unwillkürlich die Frage, wie dieses Vakuum wohl ausgefüllt wird. Die freigewordenen Energien äußern sich beim zahmen Tier experimentell in einer gegenüber dem Freileben überraschenden psychischen Leistungsfähigkeit. Beim Menschen äußert sich die Verfügbarkeit der freigewordenen Energien in der Entstehung und Entwicklung der Kultur, die bei den verschiedenen Rassen eine ungleiche Höhe erreicht hat. Bei primitiven Naturvölkern finden wir, wie schon erwähnt, dass sie wohl aus dem Fluchtkreis der Tiere befreit - aber noch eingeschlossen sind in den nicht weniger unerbittlichen Zwang zur Fluchtbereitschaft vor den zahllosen Dämonen, die ihre Umwelt beleben. - Der Befreiung aus dem Fluchtkreis kommt also entscheidende Bedeutung zu.

Die Beziehungen, die zwischen der urtümlichen Fluchttendenz und der Entstehung der Kultur bestehen, sind auch dem Kultur- und dem Kunsthistoriker nicht entgangen. - Manche von ihnen sehen in der alten Baukunst, besonders in der Kirchenbaukunst des frühen Mittelalters, in den Dämonenplastiken, Drachenköpfen und Tierfratzen noch deutlich den Ausdruck der Dämonenfurcht des damaligen Menschen. Sie empfinden den Baustil der Gotik wie die erlösende Befreiung aus dem Düster des Fluchtkreises, der Dämonenfurcht, die noch den romanischen Menschen und erst recht den primitiven Naturmenschen in Fesseln hielt.

Zum Abschluss dieses Kapitels wird es gut sein, sich nochmals die Situation des freilebenden Wildtieres zu vergegenwärtigen, die charakterisiert ist durch ewige Bedrohung, durch unaufhörlichen Zwang zur Feindvermeidung. Im Zoo, wo das Dasein des Tieres durch Gitter vor äußeren Feinden gesichert und seine «Feldspannung» (G. Bally, 1945) entscheidend gelockert ist, vermag es eine Ruhe zu erleben, wie sie der «goldenen Freiheit» fremd ist. Wer die Tiere im Zoo intensiv beobachtet, muss den Eindruck gewinnen, daß sie diese positive Seite des Gitterdaseins oft ausgesprochen genießen. Der Wegfall an zwangsbedingter Aktivität muss sogar unter Umständen künstlich kompensiert werden, wie in einem späteren Kapitel gezeigt wird."

[Quelle: Hediger, Heini <1908 - 1992>: Skizzen zu einer Tierpsychologie im Zoo und im Zirkus. -- Zürich : Büchergilde Gutenberg, 1954. -- 294 S. : Ill. ; 24 cm. -- S. 83f.]

26. Yakkhā bhayaṃ vo dukkhañ ca,
 harissāmi idaṃ ahaṃ;
tumhe nisajjaṭhānaṃ me,
 samaggā detha noa idha.

a Geiger: me

26. "Yakkha, ich werde diese eure Furcht und euer Leid von euch nehmen. Gebt mir nun einmütig einen Platz zum Sitzen."

27. Āhu te sugataṃ yakkhā,
dema mārisa te idhaa;
sabbepi sakalaṃ dīpaṃ,
dehi no abhayaṃ tuvaṃ.

a Geiger: imaṃ

27. Die Yakkha sprachen zum Vollendeten: "Herr, wir alle geben dir sogar die ganze Insel1, gib du uns Furchtlosigkeit!" 

Kommentar:

1 Mit dieser erfundenen Tradition ist der Anspruch der Buddhisten auf Lankā sanktioniert: die ursprünglichen Besitzer der Insel (die Ureinwohner) haben die Insel dem Buddha geschenkt!

28. Bhayaṃ sītaṃ tamaṃ tesaṃ,
hantvā taṃdinnabhūmiyaṃ;
cammakkhaṇḍaṃ attharitvā,
tatthāsīno jino tato.

28. Auf dem von ihnen geschenkten Boden nahm der Eroberer von ihnen Furcht, Kälte und Dunkelheit, breitete ein Stück Fell aus und setzte sich darauf.

29. Cammakkhaṇḍaṃ pasāresi,
ādittaṃ taṃ samantato;
ghammābhibhūtā te bhītā,
ṭhitā ante samantato.

29. Er ließ sich das Fellstück weit ausbreiten, rundum flammend. Von der Hitze überwältigt standen die Yakkha erschreckt rundum am Rand.

30. Giridīpaṃ tato nātho,
rammaṃ tesaṃ idhānayi;
tesu tattha paviṭṭhesu,
yathāṭhāne ṭhapesi ca.

30. Dann brachte der Herr die schöne Giri-Insel1 (Berg-Insel) zu ihnen und stellte diese Insel, nachdem die Yakkha sie betreten hatten, an ihren Ort zurück.

Kommentar:

1 Giri-Insel = Berg-Insel oder Inselberg

Ob die Giri-Insel eine Insel im Ozean ist (so die singhalesische Auslegung) oder ein isoliertes Berggebiet (so der deutsche Indologe Wilhelm Geiger), ist von geringer Bedeutung. Die Ureinwohner wurden nach dieser erfundenen Geschichte auf alle Fälle in ein neues Wohngebiet deportiert.

Wenn der Bericht überhaupt einen historischen Kern hat (was äußerst fraglich ist), dann ist Giridīpa am ehesten eine Insel der Andamanen oder Nikobaren:


Abb.: Andaman Islands: Tribal distributon
[Bildquelle: Wikipedia]

The Andaman & Nicobar Islands is a union territory of India. Informally, the territory's name is often abbreviated to A & N Islands, or ANI. It is located in the Indian Ocean, in the southern reaches of the Bay of Bengal. It is comprised of two island groups -the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands - which separate the Andaman Sea to the east from the Indian Ocean. These two groups are separated by the 10° N parallel, the Andamans lying to the north of this latitude, and the Nicobars to the south. The capital of this territory is the Andamanese town of Port Blair.


Abb.: Lage der Andamanen und Nikobaren
[Bidlquelle: Wikipedia]

The territory's population as per the most recent (2001) Census of India was 356,152. Added together, the total land area of the territory is approximately 8,249 km2.

History

Name origins

The name Andaman presumably comes from Handuman, which is Malay for the Hindu god Hanuman. The name Nicobar is Malay for land of the naked (people).

First inhabitants

The Andaman and Nicobar islands have been inhabited for several thousand years, at the very least. The earliest archaeological evidence yet documented goes back some 2,200 years; however, the indications from genetic, cultural and linguistic isolation studies point to habitation going back 30,000 to 60,000 years, well into the Middle Paleolithic.

In the Andaman Islands, the various Andamanese peoples maintained their separated existence through the vast majority of this time, diversifying into distinct linguistic, cultural and territorial groups. By the 1850s when they first came into sustained contact by outside groups, the indigenous peoples of the Andamans were:

  • the Great Andamanese, who collectively represented at least 10 distinct sub-groups and languages;
  • the Jarawa;
  • the Jangil (or Rutland Jarawa);
  • the Onge; and
  • the Sentinelese (most isolate of all the groups).

In total, these peoples numbered somewhere around 7,000 at the time of these first encounters. As the numbers of settlers from the mainland increased (at first mostly prisoners and involuntary indentured labourers, later purposely recruited farmers), these indigenous peoples lost territory and numbers in the face of land encroachment and the effects of various epidemic diseases. The Jangil and most of the Great Andamanese groups soon became extinct; presently there remain only approximately 400-450 indigenous Andamanese, the Jarawa and Sentinelese in particular maintaining a steadfast independence and refusing most attempts at contact.

The indigenous peoples of the Nicobars (unrelated to the Andamanese) have a similarly isolated and lengthy association with the islands. There are two main groups:

  • the Nicobarese, or Nicobari, living throughout many of the islands; and
  • the Shompen, restricted to the interior of Great Nicobar.
Pre-colonial era

The islands provided a temporary maritime base for ships of the Marathas in the 17th century. The legendary privateer and admiral Kanhoji Angre harassed colonial shipping routes with a base in the islands. In addition there are legends of a cannibalistic tribe led by their dark, primitive, fearsome leader: A.D. Gupta who terrorized early inhabitants.

British colonial period

After an initial attempt to set up a colony in the islands by the British was abandoned after only a few years (1789-1796), a second attempt from 1858 proved to be more permanent. The primary purpose was to set up a penal colony for dissenters and independence fighters from the Indian subcontinent.

The British used the islands as an isolated prison for members of the Indian independence movement. The mode of imprisonment was called Kalapani. The Cellular Jail in Port Blair was regarded as the "Siberia" of British India.

The islands were administered as a Chief Commissioner's Province.

The British continued their occupancy until the Japanese Invasion and Occupation of the Andaman Islands during World War II .

Indian control

The islands were nominally put under the authority of the Arzi Hukumate Azad Hind of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose. Netaji visited the islands during the war, and renamed them as "Shaheed" (Martyr) & "Swaraj" (Self-rule). General Loganathan, of the Indian National Army was Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. On22 February,1944 he along with four INA. officers-Major Mansoor Ali Alvi, Sub.Lt.Md. Iqbal, Lt.Suba Singh and stenographer Srinivasan arrived at Lambaline airport of Port Blair.On 21 March,1944 the Headquarters of the Civil A dministration was established near Gurudwara at Aberdeen Bazar.On 2 October,1944, Col.Logonathan handed over the charge to Maj. Alvi and left Port Blair for good.(Ref. "Black Days in Andaman and Nicobar Islands" by Rabin Roychowdhury,Pub.Manas Pubs.New Delhi).

It became an Indian union territory (UT) in 1950.

Recent history

On 26 December 2004 the coasts of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands were devastated by a 10 metre high tsunami following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. At least 7,000 people (possibly a conservative estimate) were believed to have been killed on the Nicobar and Andaman Islands during the disaster.

While newer settlers of the islands suffered the greatest casualties from the tsunami, most of the aboriginal people survived because oral traditions passed down from generations ago warned them to evacuate from large waves that follow large earthquakes.

Geography

There are over 570 islands in the territory, of which only some 38 are permanently inhabited. Most of the islands (about 550) are in the Andamans group, 26 of which are inhabited. The smaller Nicobars are comprised of some 22 main islands (12 inhabited). The Andmans and Nicobars are separated by a channel (the Ten Degree Channel) some 150 km wide.

The total area of the Andaman Islands is some 6,408 km2; that of the Nicobar Islands approximately 1,841 km2.

Administration

As a Union Territory, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands is nominally under the direct control of the Indian Head of State. In practice, a Lt. Governor is appointed to directly administer the territory.

The territory is divided into two districts for administrative purposes. These are the Andaman district and Nicobar district, responsible for their respective island groups. Each district is headed by a Deputy Commissioner, in charge of the various local administrative service departments, assisted by several Assistant Commissioners and sundry other posts. the districts also have Indian Administrative Service-appointed post of district collector, responsible for overseeing revenue collection and some other related services. In both cases, this post forms part of the Deputy Commissioners' portfolios, rather than being held by a separate individual.

In turn, these two districts are further sub-divided into administrative entities known locally as tehsils, which are roughly equivalent to local councils or counties. The tehsils are also grouped into local Sub-Divisions, another administrative level which primarily serves as a basis for the combining of local resources. In the case of the Nicobars, the Sub-Divisions and the tehsils are effectively one and the same."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands. -- Zugriff am 2006-04-26]

Wenn jemand Anspruch erheben kann, Ureinwohner in Sri Lanka zu sein, dann sind es die Vedda (Wedda; වැද්දා; Selbstbezeichnung: Wanniyala-Aetto = "forest beings").


Abb.: Vedda-Familie aus Rathugala

[Bildquelle: http://www.vedda.org/. -- Zugriff am 2001-05-07]


Abb.: Vedda in ihrer traditionellen Lebensform

[Bildquelle: Sri Lanka / hrsg. von Hans Höfer ...
 -- München : Nelles, 1983. -- (Apa Guides). -- ISBN 3-88618-986-4. -- S. 32]

Ein Schwerpunkt des Lebensraums der wenigen übrig gelassenen Vedda ist das Gebiet um Mahiyaṅgaṇa.


Abb.: Vedda-Siedlungen in Sri Lanka

[Bildquelle: http://www.vedda.org/. -- Zugriff am 2001-05-07]

Die Vedda sind am Verschwinden:

"Die Wedda, die die Wälder des Hochlands von Zentral-Ceylon bewohnen, sind die altertümlichste Menschengruppe Asiens. Sie sind eines der Überbleibsel einer archaischen Rassengruppe, die in vorgeschichtlicher Zeit über große Gebiete in Süd- und Südostasien verbreitet war. Die Wedda sind von kleiner Gestalt, haben eine dunkelbraune Hautfarbe und krauses oder gewelltes Haar. Sie haben ein breites Gesicht mit flacher Nase, tiefliegenden Augen, sehr vollen Lippen und ein schwaches, oft fliehendes Kinn. Da die Wedda auf Ceylon die ersten Menschen dieses Typs waren, die die Anthropologen wissenschaftlich untersuchten, wurde nach ihnen die gesamte Rassengruppe Weddide genannt. Viele der primitiven Dschungelstämme Südindiens gehören dieser Gruppe an und gleichen den Wedda auf Ceylon, und zwar nicht nur in ihrer äußeren Erscheinung, sondern auch in Lebensweise und allgemeinem Kulturniveau. Unter dem Druck höher entwickelter Völker zogen sich diese Stämme, wie die Wedda Ceylons, allmählich in ungastliche Gebirge und dichte Wälder zurück, und nur in solchen Zufluchtsgebieten leben sie noch in geschlossenen Gruppen.

Diese umherschweifenden Sammler und Jäger Südasiens haben eine Lebensweise fortgesetzt, die für die Altsteinzeit typisch war; auf Ceylon ist die Verbindung zwischen ferner Vergangenheit und der Gegenwart noch immer deutlich sichtbar. In Höhlen, die bis vor kurzem noch von Wedda bewohnt waren, fand man Steinwerkzeuge steinzeitlicher Art. Es besteht wenig Zweifel daran, dass diese Pfeilspitzen, Kratzer und Schaber Erzeugnisse der Ahnen, wenn nicht sogar der direkten Vorfahren der heutigen Wedda sind.

Heute verlieren die Wedda rasch ihre kulturelle Eigenständigkeit. Es ist nur noch eine Frage der Zeit, bis sie in der singhalesischen Bauernschicht vollkommen aufgegangen sind. Sie führen nicht mehr das Leben umherschweifender Jäger und Sammler, sondern treiben primitiven Brandrodungsfeldbau oder arbeiten als Landarbeiter.

Schon zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts war bei einigen Teilen des Stammes der Übergang zu sesshafter Lebensweise vollzogen. Zu jener Zeit gab es jedoch noch Wedda-Horden, die bei ihrer alten Lebensweise blieben. Sie ernährten sich ausschließlich von wilden Knollen, Früchten des Dschungels, Honig und dem Fleisch von Wild, das sie mit Pfeil und Bogen erlegten. Mit hölzernen Grabstocken gruben Männer und Frauen gemeinsam essbare Wurzeln aus. Sie rösteten ihre Nahrung an einem Spieß oder in der Asche eines Feuers, kochten sie jedoch nie in Wasser, weil sie keine Tongefäße hatten. Den Honig der Felsenbienen, einen sehr wichtigen Bestandteil ihrer Nahrung, sammelten sie mit Hilfe schwankender Strickleitern, die von Bäumen über die Klippen gehängt wurden; die Honigwaben wurden mit einer Art Holzschwert abgeschnitten. Die Wedda hatten jedoch keine Methoden entwickelt, um Wild oder Vögel in Fallen zu fangen. Diese Unkenntnis von Fallen und Schlingen haben sie mit den primitiveren Waldstämmen Südindiens gemeinsam. Sie fingen Fische, indem sie das Wasser vergifteten, wodurch die Fische betäubt an die Oberfläche trieben, oder sie mit Pfeilen erlegten.

Die Wedda verlegten ihre Lager, wie die Jahreszeiten und die Nahrungsversorgung es erforderten. Sie benutzten dabei entweder die vielen Höhlen oder Felsüberhänge, die es in ihrer Heimat gibt, errichteten zeitweilige Windschirme aus einem Schrägdach von belaubten Ästen, oder sie ließen sich im Schatten der Bäume nieder. Eine durchschnittliche Wedda-Gemeinschaft umfasste drei bis fünf Familien, die sich in die Jagd- und Besitzrechte eines Landstrichs teilten. Es wird berichtet, dass in früheren Zeiten Außenstehende, die in das Gebiet einer anderen Gruppe eindrangen, von den rechtmäßigen Besitzern getötet werden konnten. Ein verheirateter Mann hatte jedoch freien Zugang zu den Jagdgründen der Angehörigen seiner Frau.

Alle Wedda sind in Sippen zusammengeschlossen, in denen die Abstammung nach der weiblichen Linie gerechnet wird. Heiraten zwischen den Kindern eines Bruders und einer Schwester werden am meisten bevorzugt.

Die Wedda haben zwar jahrhundertelang in nächster Nähe der Buddhisten gelebt, haben jedoch ihre eigene Stammesreligion bewahrt. Die meisten ihrer rituellen Bräuche beziehen sich auf den Kult einer Vielzahl von Göttern und Geistern, von denen man glaubt, dass sie dem Menschen behilflich oder schädlich sein können. Dem Menschen am nächsten stehen die »neuen Geister«, d. h. die Geister der Verstorbenen. Männern, die Trance-Zustände herbeiführen können, wird die Macht zugeschrieben, Kontakt zu denjenigen Geistern herzustellen, die empfänglich für Gebete und Opfer sind und die, falls sie ausreichend versöhnt sind, für ihre Anbeter eintreten. Die Wedda haben früher ihre Geister angerufen, um Hilfe bei der Jagd und beim Honigsammeln zu erhalten. Als Feldbauer opfern sie Honig und Reis, um den Schutz der Geister für die Ernte zu erlangen. Wedda-Schamanen handeln manchmal als Orakel und werden zu Sprechern der Geister.

Die Wedda glauben, dass die Geister der Toten über das moralische Verhalten der Lebenden wachen. Jeder Ausdruck von Ärger gegenüber einem Mitmenschen beleidigt die Geister genauso wie jede Gewalttat. Zwar erlegen die Geister Ehebrechern oder Dieben keine übernatürlichen Strafen auf, aber die Geschädigten können sich an die Geister wenden und sie um ihr Eingreifen bitten.

Die Beziehungen zwischen den Wedda, den Herren des Walds, und den singhalesischen Dorfbewohnern können bis in die ferne Vergangenheit zurückverfolgt werden. Viele Mythen und Sagen berichten von buddhistischen Fürsten, die Wedda-Frauen hatten. Und sogar einige göttliche Gestalten der Volksreligion sollen, zusätzlich zu ihren offiziellen Gemahlinnen, Wedda-Geliebte gehabt haben. Es gab wahrscheinlich eine Zeit, in der die Wedda eine bedeutendere Rolle im Leben Ceylons spielten als zu der Zeit, als westliche Beobachter sie zum erstenmal antrafen."

[Quelle: Fürer-Haimendorf, Christoph von <1909 - >: Die Wedda auf Ceylon (Sri Lanka). -- In: Bild der Völker : die Brockhaus Völkerkunde. -- Wiesbaden : Brockhaus. -- Bd. 7. -- 1974. -- ISBN 3-7653-0284-8. -- S. 128f. -- Originaltitel: Peoples of the world, vol. 12]

Zur Lage der Vedda heute siehe:

Living Heritage Trust. -- http://www.vedda.org/. -- Zugriff am 2006-03-04

31. Nātho taṃ saṃkhipi cammaṃ,
tadā devā samāgamuṃ;
tasmiṃ samāgame tesaṃ,
satthā dhammam adesayi.

31. Der Herr faltete dann das Fell zusammen, die Götter versammelten sich und der Lehrer verkündete ihnen in dieser Versammlung die Lehre.

32. Nekesaṃ pāṇakoṭīnaṃ,
dhammābhisamayo ahu;
saraṇesu ca sīlesu,
ṭhitā āsuṃ asaṃkhiyā.

32. Viele hunderttausend Lebewesen begriffen die Lehre1, unzählig viele wurden fest in den Zufluchten2 und den Übungspunkten der  Sittlichkeit3.

Kommentar:

1 begriffen die Lehre: abhisamya = das völlige Verstehen der Lehre = "Bekehrung"

2 Die Zufluchten sind die dreifache Zuflucht zum Buddha, zur Buddhalehre (Dhamma) und zur Gemeinschaft der Erlösten (Sangha).

Buddhaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi
dhammaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi
saṅghaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi

dutiyaṃ pi Buddhaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi
dutiyaṃ pi dhammaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi
dutiyaṃ pi saṅghaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi

tatiyaṃ pi Buddhaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi
tatiyaṃ pi dhammaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi
tatiyaṃ pi saṅghaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi

3 Die Übungspunkte der Sittlichkeit sind:

  1. Enthaltung vom Töten von Lebewesen
  2. Enthaltung von Stehlen
  3. Enthaltung von sexuell-erotischem Fehlverhalten
  4. Enthaltung von Lügen
  5. Enthaltung von berauschenden Mitteln, die Anlass zu Nachlässigkeit sind
  1. pāṇātipātā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ [birmanische Versionen lesen: veramaṇisikkhāpadaṃ] samādiyāmi
  2. adinnādānā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi
  3. kāmesu micchācārā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi
  4. musāvādā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi
  5. surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhānā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi

33. Sotāpattiphalaṃ patvā,
sele Sumanakūṭake;
Mahāsumanadevindo,
pūjiyaṃ yāci pūjiyaṃ.

33. Der Götterherr Mahāsumana auf dem Sumanakūṭakaberg1, der die Frucht des Stromeingetretenen2 erreicht hatte, bat den Verehrenswürdigen um etwas Verehrenswürdiges.

Kommentar:

1 Sumanakūṭakaberg: Adam`s Peak, s. unten

2 Stromeingetretener (sotāpanna m.): erste Stufe der Erlösten (d.h. derer, die zu Recht Heilsgewissheit haben), hat die ersten drei Fesseln überwunden, nämlich:

34. Siraṃ parāmasitvāna,
nīlāmalasiroruho;
pāṇimatte adā kese,
tassa pāṇahito jino.

34. Aufs Heil der Lebewesen bedacht strich sich der Eroberer, der makellose schwarze Locken besaß, über seinen Kopf, nahm eine Handvoll Haare und gab sie jenem.

35. So taṃ suvaṇṇacaṅkoṭa-
varenādāya satthuno;
nisinnaṭṭhānaracite,
nānāratanasañcaye.
36. Sabbato sattaratane,
te ṭhapetvā siroruhe;
so indanīlathūpena,
pidahesi namassi ca.

35./36. Mahāsumana nahm diese in einem vorzüglichem goldenen Korb, stellte diesen auf einen Haufen verschiedener Edelsteine mit einem Durchmesser von 7 Ratana1 an dem Platz, an dem der Lehrer gesessen hatte. Das ganze bedeckte er mit einem Stūpa aus blauen Saphiren2. Dann verehrte er sie.

Kommentar:

1 Ratana: 1 Ratana = 12 Fingerbreiten (aṅgula)

2 blauen Saphiren


Abb.: Geschliffener blauer Saphir
[Bildquelle: en.wikipedia]

"Als Saphir bezeichnet man im weiteren Sinne jeden Schmuckstein aus Korund [Al2O3] mit Ausnahme der rubinroten Varietäten (Rubine). Im engeren Sinne bezieht sich der Begriff heute aber nur noch auf die blauen Varianten, die aber immer noch von Himmelblau bis zu einem ins Schwarze gehenden Dunkelblau reichen und je nach Lichteinfall auch im Farbton variieren können. Die Farbe wird durch Verunreinigungen durch zweiwertige Eisenatome verursacht; dreiwertiges Eisen verursacht dagegen gelbe Varianten. Die chemische Zusammensetzung wird durch die Formel Al2O3 beschrieben; die Härte des Saphirs beträgt 9 auf der Mohs-Skala.


Abb.: Rohsaphir

Vorkommen und künstliche Herstellung

Saphire treten in Pegmatiten oder durch Verwitterung verbracht in Flusssedimenten auf.

Die bedeutendsten Produzenten von Saphiren waren bis vor kurzem Sri Lanka und Indien, heute kommen die Schmucksteine auch aus den USA oder Nigeria.

Künstliche Saphire können in perfekter Qualität in nahezu unbegrenzter Größe hergestellt werden.

Verwendung

Neben seiner Verwendung als Schmuckstein wurde der Saphir in Schallplattenspielern der 1950er und 1960er Jahren als Spitze der Tonabnehmernadel eingesetzt.

Synthetische einkristalline Saphir-Substrate sind das wichtigste Ausgangsmaterial für das künstliche Kristallwachstum (Epitaxie) von Galliumnitrid, eine Substanz, die in blauen, weißen und grünen LEDs sowie blauen Halbleiterlasern eingesetzt wird.

Unter Beimischung von Titan als Laserion sind synthetische Saphire auch selbst ein wichtiger Bestandteil für Laser-Anwendungen, insbesondere für durchstimmbare Laser im Wellenlängenbereich von 750 bis etwa 1000 Nanometern; diese werden als Titan-Saphir-Laser, kurz Ti:Sa-Laser bezeichnet.

Für die extremen Belastungen ausgesetzten Fenster von Aufklärungsflugzeugen oder Weltraumflugkörpern werden synthetische Saphire von bis zu 75 Zentimeter Durchmesser eingesetzt.

In besonderen Fällen findet Saphir auch in wissenschaftlichen Instrumenten bei der Raumfahrt Verwendung, zum Beispiel bei der Genesis-Mission.

Individuelle Saphire

Der größte jemals geschliffene Saphir ist der "Stern von Indien" mit einem Gewicht von 563,35 Karat. Der in Sri Lanka gefundene Stein wurde 1901 durch John Pierpont Morgan an das American Museum of Natural History übereignet und kann dort besichtigt werden.

Esoterik

Die himmelblaue Variante wird gewöhnlich mit Eigenschaften wie Ruhe, Reinheit und Frieden in Verbindung gebracht."

[Quelle: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saphir. -- Zugriff am 2006-04-26]

37. Parinibbutamhi sambuddhe,
citakato caa iddhiyā;
ādāya jinagīvaṭṭhiṃ,
thero Sarabhūnāmako.
38. Therassa Sāriputtassa,
sisso ānīya cetiye;
tasmiṃ yeva ṭhapetvāna,
bhikkhūhi parivārito.
39. Chādāpetvā medavaṇṇa-
pāsāṇehi mahiddhiko;
thūpaṃ dvādasahatthuccaṃ,
kārāpetvāna pakkami.

a Geiger: va

37./38./39. Nach dem endgültigen Erlöschen des Sambuddha nahm der Thera Sarabhu, ein Schüler des Thera Sāriputta1,  mit magischer Kraft den Nackenknochen des Eroberers vom Scheiterhaufen und brachte ihn dorthin. Er stellte diesen Knochen im Beisein von Mönchen in diesen Stūpa. Dann bedeckte der Wundermächtige die Reliquie mit Specksteinen, erhöhte den Stūpa auf 12 Hattha2 und ging weg.

Kommentar:

1 Sāriputta (m.): Spitze an Einsicht / Weisheit unter den Mönchen. Er und Mahā-Moggalāna sind die beiden am meisten herausragenden Jünger Buddhas. Sie werden zu beiden Seiten Buddhas dargestellt: Sāriputta zur Rechten Buddhas, Moggallāna zur Linken. Sāriputta ist das Vorbild für die Mönche, deren vorwiegende Beschäftigung Gelehrsamkeit, Studium der Lehre ist 

2 Hattha: 1 Hattha = Hand

40. Devānaṃpiyatissassa,
rañño bhātu kumārako;
Uddhacūḷābhayo nāma,
disvā taṃ cetiyam abbhutaṃ.
41. Taṃ chādayitvā kāresi,
tiṃsahatthuccacetiyaṃ;

40./41. Uddhacūlabhaya, der Sohn des Bruders von König Devānampiyatissa1, sah diesen wunderbaren Cetiya, bedeckte ihn und machte so daraus einen 30 Hattha hohen Cetiya. 

Kommentar:

1 Devānampiyatissa: König von Sri Lanka 247 bis 207 v. Chr.

maddanto Damiḷe rājā,
tatraṭṭho Duṭṭhagāmaṇi.
42. Asītihatthaṃ kāresi,
tassa kañjukacetiyaṃ;
Mahiyaṅgaṇathūpo 'yam
eso evaṃ patiṭṭhito.

41./42. Während der König Dutthagāmanī1 die Tamilen (Damila)2 bekriegte, weilte er hier und baute einen 80 Hattha hohen Mantelcetiya darum. So wurde der Mahiyanga-Stūpa3 vollendet.

Kommentar:

1 Dutthagāmanī: König von Sri Lanka 101 bis 77 v. Chr.

2 Tamilen (Damiḷa):

"Damila

The name of a people (Tamils) whose home was in South India. The Ceylon Chronicles (Mhv., Cv., and Dpv., passim) contain records of invasions of Ceylon by the Damilas, the most noteworthy being that which was repelled by Dutthagāmani. The Damila leader on that occasion was Elāra. Other Damilas mentioned by name in the Mahāvaṃsa are Sena, Gutta, Pulahattha, Vatuka and Niliya. Large numbers of Damilas settled in Ceylon, chiefly in the north and east of the Island and, in due course, gained possession of that part of the country. They were employed as mercenary soldiers by some of the Sinhalese kings and many were brought as captives (E.g., Cv.lxx.230; lxxv.20, 69; lxxviii.76, etc.). The Damila bhāsā is mentioned among the eighteen non-Aryan languages (E.g., VibhA.388; it was full of consonants, AA.i.409). In the Akitti Jātaka (J.iv.238) the Damilarattha is spoken of as including also the region round Kāvīrapattana, while in the Petavatthu Commentary (p.133) it is spoken of as part of Dakkhinapātha."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s.v.]

"Sri Lankan Tamils

Sri Lankan Tamils also known as Eelam Tamils, Ceylonese or Ceylon Tamils and Jaffna Tamils are today a trans-national minority, and are Tamil people from Sri Lanka. Just like the Jewish Diaspora, they are found in almost all continents including their country of origin Sri Lanka. Their origins lie in South India in a cultural region called as Tamilakam, a region that encompasses both the present day Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala as well as Sri Lanka. They are of interest to many Western and Asian decision makers because of their national aspirations back in Sri Lanka for an independent state called Tamil Eelam and related activities. It is a community bound by common language, culture and suffering or memory of it because of repeated pogroms in Sri Lanka since 1958 till the present day. (see Black July.)


Abb.: Hindu-Hochzeit bei Sri Lankan Tamils, Jaffna, 2005
[Bildquelle: oregongirl. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/oregongirl/4976430/. -- Creative Commons Lizenz. -- Zugriff am 2006-06-04]

History

Sri Lanka boasts of a continuous written history of its political aspirations called Mahavamsa that has become the rallying point for the majority Sinhalese Buddhists to relegate the minority Sri Lankan Tamils as the perennial other or foreigner amongst them. This has prompted the Tamils to look for or manufacture history that can stand up to the claims made by the Sinhalese. Nevertheless there is attestation of Tamil presence during the period of Prakrit speaking people’s colonization of the country and ever since spanning a period of over 2,000 years. Whether Tamil People as a self conscious community were present prior to this colonization from somewhere in North India is debatable. It is this colonization that gave birth to the nation of Sinhalese.

One of the major impetus for the survival of a community that considered it, Tamil as opposed assimilating with majoritan Sinhalese happened in the 11 century A.D. with the advent of Jaffna Kingdom. The survival of Tamil communities or social groups that maintained a Tamil identity outside this kingdoms borders namely in the eastern province (Batticaloa) has not being explained fully.

Complete Tamil assimilation of formerly Tamil speaking communities such as the Karave, Durave, Salagama and Demalagatara as Sinhalese in the western littoral has been accepted begrudgingly and belatedly by local historians.

Hence the Sri Lankan Tamils today are descendants of those who for what ever reason decided to maintain a non Sinhalese identity. It can be argued that a lot more people of Tamil heritage have become Sinhalese than remain as Tamils. It is also true that a significant minority of Sri Lankan Tamils decend from Sinhalese and indigenous Vedda lineages.

Subgroups

Due to the various streams by which Tamils have either maintained or lost their identity as Tamils in Sri lanka we can identify 2 major sub groups. One is the Eastern Tamils who live from Trincomalee down to Kumana. The other major group is the Northern Tamils. Infact the modern trials and tribulations of the Sri Lankan Tamils is that of the Northern Tamils. Because it is this sub group that has articulated a political vision that eventually lead to the aspirations for separation from Sri Lanka. There was also group of Tamils known as Negambo Tamils of the Western province who just recently switched over to Sinhalese identity. Other social groups or castes who lived further south in the western littoral have abandoned Tamil identity many generations ago and are considered to be Sinhalese.

There are other social groups such as the Colombo Chetty and Bharatakula who although with obvious Tamils roots with Sinhalese and other admixture for political and sociological purposes do'not consider them to be either Tamil or Sinhalese.

Ethnic consciousness

Not all the Tamils living in Sri Lanka referred to as Sri Lankan Tamils(SLT) for in all the government records and even at the level of group consciousness there is a distinction made between the Indian Origin Tamils (IT) of the tea and rubber plantation areas, and the Sri Lankan Tamils who are the traditional Tamil inhabitants of Sri Lanka largely confined to the northern and the eastern parts of the island.


Abb.: Indian Tamils: Teepflückerinnen im Hochland Sri Lankas
[Bildquelle: ano. -- http://www.flickr.com//photos/34602542@N00/31748078/. -- Creative Commons Lizenz. -- Zugriff am 2006-06-04]

It should be borne in mind that the political militancy found among the Tamils that characterises the current ethnic conflict is totally opposed to such a distinction being made, and prefers to call these Tamils the “ Malaiyakat tamilar” or Tamils of the Mountain referring to the Hill Country Tamils. Though it is true that the bulk of the Tamils of Indian descent bought in as plantation laborers by the British are continuing to live in the estate areas in the central regions of Sri Lanka, it cannot be denied that a substantial number of them had to leave the estates and go into the traditional Tamil areas for reasons of safety and security - a process that started in the sixties increased in the seventies when the estates were nationalized and in the eighties when there were ethnic riots. Thus in the Census of 1981 it was officially acknowledged that the following districts which are predominately Tamil had the following percentage of Indian Tamils: Vavuniya 19.4% Mullaitivu: 13.9% Mannar:13.2% Kilinochi est. 15%

The figures since state sponsored Black July 1983 anti Tamil pogrom must be high. What is important is that, due to economic and socio-political pressures the pace of assimilation of the IT into the SLT is high. Marriages between IT and SLT Tamils are on the increase and there is an increasing sense of oneness politically. However, to understand their group solidarity and cohesiveness, it is important that they are studied separately.

Tamilnadu Tamils versus Sri Lankan Tamils
  1. Unlike in Tamil Nadu, the Brahmins do not exercise social control. Though they are ritually the highest caste, among SLT they do not have the necessary numbers, social power and authority. Quite often they are employees at temples with well-defined duties and obligations. Nor do the Brahmins officiate in all temples; there are non-Brahmin priests known as Saiva kurukkals, drawn originally from the Vellala caste as well as Kapuhar, Pandaram and other native priests.
  2. The dominant caste among SLT is the Vellalas, and except in rare cases they have the social control.
  3. Unlike in Tamil Nadu where the caste system has an observable caste-tribe continuum (Vanniar, Kallar, Maravar, Irular) among SLT just like amongst the Sinhalese, castes are largely occupation based. (See Caste in Sri Lanka)
  4. Among the SLT marriages are largely matrilocal; among the TnT it is largely patrilocal.
  5. Kinship organisation and sometimes even the kinship terms are different, for instances, at the non-brahmin level among the TnT uravinmurai or lineage tradition is very strong; among the SLT even though they have the pakutior lineage tradition, it is not strong; it is not sustainable.
  6. In religious practices also there is considerable difference; there are also considerable differences in temple management.
  7. Food habits vary much, among the SLT there is much less use of milk, esp."tayir" and "mor". SLT and Sinhalese food habbits mimic that of the Malabar region of Kerala and south Tamil Nadu.
  8. SLT dialects (Jaffna, Negombo and Batticaloa variety) are different from the major local dialects of Tamilnadu. But maintain archaic Tamil words that are used also in Malayalam a langauge used in Kerala as well Tamil dialects used in southern Kanyakumari district of Tamil nadu.
  9. The SLT literary culture too has been very different. In creative critical writings, SLT literary culture, responding to local needs and aspirations, has been able to carve out a distinct idiom of expression.
Population figures

The following are the population figurers of the SLT in the various districts of the North and East, for 1981.

Jaffna - 95.3% Mullaitivu - 76.0% Mannar - 50.6% Vavuniya - 56.9% Trincomalee - 33.8% Batticaloa - 70.8% Amparai - 20.1% Of the population of 14,850,001, SLT are 1,871,535 (12.6%) and Indians are 825,238 (5.6%). The Tamils in all constitute 17% of the population. SOURCE: CENSUS 1981.

[...]

The present situation

Even before the advent of ethnic conflicts and civil war in Sri Lanka, Sri Lankan Tamils especially those from Jaffna have been migrating to Malaysia, Singapore and Europe. Hence there is a large expatriate community in these countries that are well integrated and prosperous unlike in Sri Lanka. Lack of integration with the Sri Lankan mainstream community has been noted as a failure of the community by many commentators. But the Sri Lankan Tamils total integration in Singapore and Malaysia shows that internal political climate in Sri lanka as the real culprit not the community itself. Especially in Singapore, many politicians both ruling and opposition have hailed from this community. Because of the open and accepting conditions found by the community in the West and South East Asia, many prominent Sri Lankan Tamils of the 21st century are not from Sri Lanka.

Due the effects of civil war many aspects of spiritual, social and religious mode of life, even the personal has been adversely affected. Over 64,000 people have been killed or gone missing since Black July of 1983, vast majority of them civilians. Countless number of personal property, businesses and places of worship have been destroyed. Many Sri Lankan Tamil families are affected via a murder, rape, missing or detention of a loved one. Many have left these deprivations by emigrating to India, Europe and North America. Countless number of them are internally displaced. There are more displaced Tamils in Colombo today than Jaffna. In Canada alone there are over 250,000 Sri Lankan Tamils congregated in Ontario province. All this must have profound effect on the Sri Lankan Tamil society viability and future in Sri Lanka.

But the community aboard particularly in the West is prospering and integrating with the host community just like their predecessors did in Malaysia and Singapore a few generations ago. In the 2004 Canadian general elections 2 members of the federal parliament were nominated from this community. "

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Tamils. -- Zugriff am 2006-04-03]

2 Der Mahiyaṅgaṇa-Dagoba ist heute ca. 30 m hoch und hat einen Sockelumfang von 120 m. Zu ihm führen heute etwa 2000 Stufen eines Pilgerpfades sowie eine schmale Straße. Am Septembervollmond ist der Mahiyaṅgaṇa-Dagoba Ziel vieler Wallfahrer. 


Abb.: Mahiyaṅgaṇa-Stūpa
[Bildquelle: Dennis Sylvester Hurd. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/dennissylvesterhurd/50827323/in/set-804644/. -- Creative Commons Lizenz. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-26]

"Bei Restaurationsarbeiten wurde zu Beginn der fünfziger Jahres eine Reliquienkammer mit einem quadratischen Grundriss freigelegt, die vermutlich erst bei der Restaurierung im 11. Jh. eingebaut wurde. Die Nischen an den Kardinalpunkten der vier Seitenwände beherbergten ein oder mehrere Buddhabildnisse im indischen Amaravati- oder Pala-Stil. Der steinerne, kastenförmige Behälter in der Mitte des Raumes mit einer Kantenlänge von 1,22 m und einer Höhe von nur 1,10 m enthielt zwei Reliquien, kleine Dagobas aus Kupfer mit goldener Spitze, außerdem Münzen und aus Goldfolie gefertigte Blumen. Vier bronzene Reiterfiguren, bewaffnet mit Schwert und Schild und begleitet von einer Frauengestalt, standen -- gleichsam als Wache -- an den vier Seiten des steinernen Behälters. Auch die übrigen Gegenstände in der Kammer (u. a. eiserne Dreizacke als Symbol Shivas, goldene Banner, Kupfergefäße und -lampen, Schalen mit Gold- und Silbermünzen sowie Halbedel- und Edelsteine) waren symmetrisch um den Steinbehälter herum angeordnet. Die Wände waren einst mit Malereien bedeckt, von denen allerdings nur Fragmente erhalten waren. Diese wurden sorgsam abgelöst und -- wie auch die übrigen Gegenstände -- in das Museum von Anuradhapura gebracht."

[Quelle: Sri Lanka. -- Ostfildern : Baedeker, ©1999. -- (Baedeker Allianz Reiseführer). -- ISBN 3895254371. -- S. 192. -- {Wenn Sie HIER klicken, können Sie dieses Buch  bei amazon.de bestellen}]

"Un stûpa (un mot sanskrit) est une structure architecturale bouddhiste que l'on trouve dans le sous-continent indien, dont il est originaire, mais aussi dans le reste de l'Asie où il a suivi l'expansion du bouddhisme. C'est à la fois une représentation aniconique du Bouddha et un monument commémorant sa mort ou parinirvâna.

Origine

Le stûpa trouve son origine dans le tumulus et ne consiste, à ses débuts, qu'en un empilement de pierres au cœur duquel est enfermé une relique du Bouddha. En effet, d'après la tradition, après la crémation du Bouddha, ses reliques sont partagées en huit parties qui sont distribuées aux huit rois venus lui rendre hommage à cette occasion : Ajâtashatru, le roi du Magadha, au Lichchavî de Vaishâlî, aux Shâkya de Kapilavastu, aux Buli d'Allakappa, aux Koliya de Ramagama, au brahmane de Vethadipa, aux Malla de Pâpâ - Pâvâ en pâli - et aux Malla de Kusinâgar. Ce sont ces reliques qui vont être enchâssées dans les premiers stûpas.

Cependant, tous les stûpas ne contiennent pas de relique. On classe généralement les stûpas en quatre catégories suivant leur nature :

  • les dhâtu-caitya qui abritent des reliques,
  • les paribhoga-caitya qui contiennent des objets ayant appartenu au Bouddha,
  • les dharma-caitya qui exposent la doctrine bouddhique,
  • les uddeśika-caitya qui commémorent simplement le parinirvâna, chaitya étant un mot sanscrit signifiant sanctuaire.

De la même façon, toutes les reliques ne sont pas enfouies dans un stûpa. Un contre exemple notable est la fameuse dent de Bouddha, une molaire supposée restée intacte dans le bûcher de sa crémation, qui après être restée en Orissâ, à Dantapura, peut-être l'actuelle Purî, fut envoyée à Ceylan par Ashoka, où elle légitimait le pouvoir des rois cinghalais. Elle connut ensuite de nombreuses aventures - transfert en Birmanie durant la période de la colonisation portugaise de l'île, deux destructions par martelage et crémation, dont l'une à Goa d'une réplique par l'inquisition - et se trouve actuellement dans le Dâlada Maligawa, le Temple de la Dent à Kandy, qui n'est pas à proprement parler un stûpa.

Évolution et propagation

La structure principale, l'anda, qui représente le bol à aumône retourné, évolue plus tard en une demi-sphère, parfois avec une base cylindrique comme à Sârnâth, par exemple. L'anda repose le plus souvent sur un piédestal carré, un groupe de trois marches symbolisant la robe de moine repliée. Le stûpa comporte parfois un ou plusieurs portails d'accès ou torana, une vedikâ ou clôture autour du monument délimitant le pradakshinâpata, un chemin circumambulatoire autour de l'anda qui se parcourt dans le sens dextrogyre. Au sommet de la structure, on trouve un harmikâ, sorte de plateforme entourée d'une balustrade, d'où émerge un mât, le stambha qui porte le chattrâ, un certain nombre d'ombrelles de tailles décroissantes formant un cône.

Ils connaissent souvent des remaniements, en particulier la pose d'un acchadya - ou couverture - destiné à augmenter leurs dimensions afin de les rendre plus majestueux.

L'empereur Ashoka qui régna dans le nord de l'Inde au IIIe siècle av. J.-C., est considéré comme le grand propagateur de ce type de construction. La tradition le crédite de 84 000 stûpas, mais il s'agit là probablement d'un nombre plus symbolique que réel.

La forme du stûpa connaît une forte variation lors de sa dissémination dans le continent asiatique, chaque région développant son style propre. Ainsi, au Tibet et dans ses anciens satellites culturels que sont le Bhoutan et le Sikkim, il devient un chorten, avec sa forme caractéristique de bulbe, tandis qu'à l'inverse, au Myanmar et en Asie du Sud-Est, il adopte une forme typique de cloche.

Les stûpas célèbres
  • Les stûpas de Sânchî, en Inde, dont le plus grand date probablement du règne d'Ashoka, et qui a connu divers remaniements dont le dernier daterait du Ier siècle.
  • Le stûpa de Bodnath à Kathmandou du XIVe siècle.
  • Le stûpa (chedi) Phra Pathom Chedi à Nakhon Pathom en Thaïlande, record de hauteur, avec ses 127 mètres.
  • Le stûpa de la pagode Shwedagon à Rangoon (Birmanie) avec l'or et les pierreries qui le recouvrent.
  • Le Pha That Luang, stûpa de style laotien, monument national à Vientiane (Laos)

Le stûpa se transforme aussi en pagode, un véritable bâtiment dans lequel on peut pénétrer, tandis que le bouddhisme se répand en Asie.

Noms locaux des stûpas

pâli : thûpa, dâgoba ; tibétain : chorten ; birman : dagon, paya, zedi ; thaï : thât, chedi ; laotien : thât ; khmer : chetdei, chedey ; vietnamien : thap ; mongol : suwurghan ou suburghan ; chinois : ta, ta-lin ; coréen : tap, budo ; japonais : tô, sotoba."

[Quelle: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%BBpa. -- Zugriff am 2006-04-26]

43. Evaṃ dīpam imaṃ katvā,
manussārahamissaro;
Uruvelam agā dhīro,
uruvīraparakkamo
.

43. Nachdem der weise Herr so diese Insel menschenwürdig gemacht hatte ging er nach Uruvelā mit dem weiten Schritt eines Helden.


Paralleltext des Dīpavaṃsa (I, 45 - 81):

45 Buddhacakkhuhi lokaggo sabbalokaṃ vilokayi,
addasa virajo satthā Laṅkādīpavaruttamaṃ.
46 Mahāvanaṃ mahābhīmaṃ ahū Laṅkātalaṃ tadā,
nānāyakkhā mahāghorā luddā lohitabhakkhasā.
47 Caṇḍā ruddā ca pisācā nānārūpavihesikā,
nānādhimuttikā sabbe sannipāte samāgatā.
48 Tattha gantvāna tammajjhe vimaṃsetvāna rakkhase,
nīharitvā pisācānaṃ manussā honti issarā.
49 Imam athaṃ mahāvīro cintayitvā bahuṃ hitaṃ,
nabhaṃ abbhuggamitvāna Jambudīpā idhāgato
50 Yakkhasamāgame majjhe upari siramatthake,
nisīdanaṃ gahetvāna dissamāno nabhe ṭhito
51 Ṭhitaṃ passanti sambuddhaṃ yakkhasenā samāgatā,
Buddho ti taṃ na maññanti yakkho aññataro iti
52 Gaṅgātīre Mahiyāsu pokkhalesu
patiṭṭhite thūpaṭṭhāne Subhaṅgaṇe,
tasmiṃ padesasmi ṭhito naruttamo
samappito jhānasamādhim uttamaṃ.
53 Jhānaṃ lahuṃ khīppanisantikāro
muni samāpajjati cittakkhaṇe,
Sahasā tam uṭṭhāti jhānakkhaṇiyā
samāpayi sucittehi pāramīgato.
54 Ṭhito naro iddhi vikubbamāno
yakkho va mahiddhica mahānubhāvo,
khaṇiyaṃ ghanā meghasahassadhārā
pavassati sītalavātaduddīni.
55 Ahaṃ karomi te uṇhaṃ mama detha nisīdituṃ,
atthi tejabalaṃ mayhaṃ parissayavinodanaṃ.
56 Sace vinodituṃ sakkā nisīdāhi yathicchitaṃ,
sabbehi samanuññātaṃ tava tejabalaṃ kara.
57 Uṇhaṃ yācatha maṃ sabbe bhiyyo tejaṃ mahātapaṃ
khippaṃ karoma accuṇhaṃ tumhehi abhipathitaṃ.
58 Ṭhite majjhantike kāle gimhānaṃ suriyo yathā,
evaṃ yakkhānam ātāpo kāye ṭhapita dāruṇaṃ.
59 Yathā kappaparivaṭṭe catusūriyaātapo,
evaṃ nisīdane satthu tejo hoti tatuttari.
60 Yathā sūriyaṃ udentaṃ na sakkā āvarituṃ nabhe,
evaṃ nisīdanaṃ cammaṃ n' athi āvaraṇaṃ nabhe.
61 Nisīdanaṃ kappajālaṃ va tejaṃ suriyaṃ va pathavī,
mahātapaṃ vikirati aggijālaṃ v' anappakaṃ.
62 Aṅgārarāsījalitātapaṃ tahiṃ,
nisīdanaṃ abbhasamaṃ padissati,
pakkaṃ va ayomayapabbatūpamaṃ.
Dīpesu uṇhaṃ nidasseti dussahaṃ,
yakkhāsu paṭisaraṇaṃ gavesayuṃ
63 Purathimaṃ pacchimadakkhiṇuttaraṃ,
uddhaṃ adho dasa disā imāyo
kathaṃ gamissāma sukhī arogā
kadā pamuñcama imaṃ subheravaṃ.
Sace ayaṃ yakkho mahānubhāvo
tejo samāpajjati pajjalāyati,
sabbeva yakkhā vilayā bhavissare,
Bhusaṃ va muṭṭhi rajaṃ vātakhittaṃ.
65 Buddho ca kho isinisabho sukhāvaho
disvāna yakkhe dukkhite bhayaṭṭite
anukampako kāruṇiko mahesi
vicintayi attasukhaṃ amānuse.
66 Ath' aññadīpaṃ patirūpakaṃ imaṃ
ninnaṃ thalaṃ sabbaṭhānekasādisaṃ,
nadipabbatatalākasunimmalaṃ
dīpaṃ Giriṃ Laṅkātalasamūpamaṃ
67 Sunibbhayaṃ gobhitasāgarantakaṃ
pahūtabhakkhaṃ bahudhaññamākulaṃ,
utusamathaṃ harisaddalaṃ mahiṃ
varaṃ Giridīpam imassa uttariṃ
68 Rammaṃ manuññaṃ haritaṃ susītalaṃ
Ārāmavanarāmaṇeyyakaṃ varaṃ,
Santīdha phullaphaladhārino dumā,
suññaṃ vivittaṃ na ca koci issaro.
69 Mahaṇṇave sāgaravārimajjhe
sugambhīre ūmi sadā pabbijjare,
suduggame pabbatajālamussite
sudukkaraṃ atha aniṭṭhamantaraṃ.
70 Paravānarosā parapiṭṭhimaṃsikā
akāruṇikā paraheṭṭhane ratā,
caṇḍā ca ruddā rabhasā ca niddayā
vidappanīkā sapathe idha ime.
71 Atha rakkhasā yakkhagaṇā ca duṭṭhā
dīpaṃ imaṃ Laṅkāciranivāsitaṃ,
dadāmi sabbaṃ Giridīpaporāṇaṃ
vasantu sabbe supajā anīghā.
72 Imaṃ ca Laṅkātalaṃ mānusānaṃ
porāṇakappaṭṭhitavuthavāsaṃ,
vasantu Laṅkātale mānusā bahū
Pubbe va Ojavaramaṇḍasādisaṃ.
73 Etehi aññehi guṇeh' upeto
manussavāso anekabhaddako,
dīpesu dīpissati sāsan' āgate
Supuṇṇacado va nabhe uposathe.
74 Dīpaṃ ubho mānusā rakkhasā ca
ubho ubhinnaṃ tulayaṃ sukhaṃ muni,
bhiyyo sukhaṃ lokavidū ubhinnaṃ
parivattayi goṇayugaṃ va phāsukaṃ.
75 Saṅkaḍḍhayi Gotamo dīpam iddhiyā
bandhaṃ va goṇaṃ daḷharajjukaḍḍhitaṃ,
dīpena dīpaṃ upanāmayī muni
yugaṃ va nāvaṃ daḷhadhammaveditaṃ.
76 Dīpena dīpaṃ yugalaṃ tathāgato
katvān' uḷāraṃ vipari ca rakkhase,
vasantu sabbe Giridīparakkhasā
sapakkamāsā vasanaṃ va vatthitaṃ.
77 Gaṅgaṃ gimhamhī yathā pipāsitā
dhāvanti yakkhā Giridīpam atthikā,
paviṭṭhā sabbe anivattane puna
pamuñca dīpaṃ yathābhūmiyaṃ muni.
78 Yakkhā sutuṭṭhā supahaṭṭharakkhasā
laddhā sudīpaṃ manasābhipathitaṃ,
abhāyiṃsu sabbe atippamoditā
otariṃsu sabbe chaṇe nakkhattamahaṃ
79 Ñatvāna buddho sukhite amānuse
katvāna mettaṃ parittaṃ bhaṇi jino,
katvāna dīpaṃ tividhaṃ padakkhiṇaṃ
sadā rakkhaṃ yakkhagaṇavinodanaṃ
80 Santappayitvā pisāce amānuse
rakkhaṃ ca katvā daḷhaṃ mettābhāvanaṃ,
upaddavaṃ dīpe vinodetvā
gato Uruvelaṃ puna tathāgato.
"45. With his Buddha-eye, the highest in the world looked over the universe; the stainless Teacher (then) saw the most excellent Lankādīpa. 46. At that time the ground of Lankā was covered with great forests and full of horrors; frightful, cruel, blood-thirsty Yakkhas of various kinds, — 47. and savage, furious, pernicious Pisācas of various shapes and full of various (wicked) thoughts, all had assembled together. 48. „I shall go there, in their midst; I shall dispel the Rakkhasas and put away the Pisācas; men shall be masters (of the island)."

49. Having considered this matter full of compassion, the great hero rose into the air and came hither from Jambudīpa. 50. In the midst of the assembly of Yakkhas, above their heads, he was seen, standing in the air, holding bis seat (in his hands). 51. The assembled hosts of Yakkhas saw the Sambuddha standing there, but they did not think that he was the Buddha; they supposed him to be another Yakkha. 52. On the bank of the river, near Mahiya Pokkhala, on the site of the Subhangana Thūpa, there the highest of men stood, and entered upon the highest ecstatic meditation. 53. The Sage, the awakener of quick attention, speedily entered upon that meditation (by revolving) in a moment by one thought (the whole system of qualities). Suddenly he thence rose; he who had reached (all) perfections by his virtuous resolutions, ... finished his meditation. 54. There the hero stood, performing miracles by his (magical) power, like a Yakkha of high (magical) power and great (supernatural) faculties; gathering (?) thick clouds, containing thousands of rain drops, he sent rain, cold winds, and darkness. 55. (He then spoke to the Yakkhas:) „I will send you heat; give unto me a place where I may sit down. I possess such power over the fire as will dispel these dangers." 56. (The Yakkhas replied: „If thou art able to dispel them, sit down whereever thou likest; we all consent; show thy power over the fire." 57. (Buddha replied:) „You all ask me for warmth; I shall quickly produce the great heat which you are desiring, a fierce, burning fire." 58. As the sun shines in summer at noon, so fearful heat penetrated the assembly of Yakkhas. 59. Like the heat spread by the four suns at the end of a Kappa, such and greater still was the glow sent forth by the seat of the Teacher. 60. As the rising sun cannot be restrained in the sky, thus (Buddha's) carpet of skin cannot be restrained in the air. 61. The carpet diffused great heat, like the fire at the end of the Kappa, as the sun (scorches) the earth, or like a great flame of fire. 62. Diffusing heat like a heap of burning coals, the carpet appeared similar to a cloud, or to a glowing iron mountain. 63. It spread insupportable heat over the islands. The Yakkhas quickly fled in all ten directions, to the east, the west, the south, the north, above, and beneath. 64. „Whither shall we go for safety and refuge? How shall we be released from this fearful being? 65. If this powerful Yakkha assumes the form of the fiery element, and burns us, all of us Yakkhas will perish like a handful of chaff, like dust blown away by the wind." 66. And Buddha, the chief among Sages, the bringer of happiness, the compassionate, merciful great Sage, when he saw the afflicted, frightened Yakkhas, thought how to administer joy to the minds of these non-human beings. 67. (He) then (thought of) another island, similar to this, with low ground and high ground, with many various aspects, beautifully adorned by rivers, mountains, and lakes, the island of Giri, most similar to the country of Lankā. 68. (It was) free from danger, well protected, surrounded by the ocean, full of excellent food and rich grain, with a well tempered climate, a green, grassy land, the beautiful island of Giri, superior to this (island). 69. It was charming and delightful, green and cool, adorned by gardens and forests, exquisite; there were trees, full of blossoms and fruits; it was empty and solitary, subject to no master. 70. (It was situated) in the great sea, in the midst of the ocean and of the deep waters, where the waves incessantly break; around it there was a chain of mountains, towering, difficult to pass; to enter it against the wish (of the inhabitants) was difficult. 71. Full of desire and anger towards other beings, backbiting, pitiless, given to injuring other beings, cruel and furious, violent, merciless,... 72. (Buddha thus spoke:) „Ye Rakkhasas and ye wicked hosts of Yakkhas, I give unto you this island which is not far from Lankā, the whole old island of Giri; may they all inhabit it and multiply undisturbed. 73. This country of Lankā is a residence inhabited by men since remote Kappas; may many men dwell in the country of Lankā, as they did in former times in the Oja, Vara, and Manda island. 74. Adorned with these and other good qualities, a residence fit for men, auspicious in many ways, it will shine among the islands, when the Doctrine will have been brought there, like the full moon in the sky at the time of Uposatha." 75. Weighing the prosperity and the high happiness of the two, the Sage who knew all worlds, interchanged the two islands and the two (kinds of beings), men and Rakkhasas, (as a peasant) easily (interchanges) his pairs of bullocks. 76. Gotama by his (magical) power drew the island towards himself, like the headstalls of bullocks which are drawn (towards the driver) with a strong rope. The Sage drew together one island towards the other, like two ships which are surrounded by stout ropes. 77. Having joined the beautiful island to the other, the Tathāgata transported (?) the Rakkhasas, (saying:) „May all Rakkhasas dwell in Giridīpa ..." 78. The eager Yakkhas ran to Giridīpa, like thirsty people in summer to a river; they all entered it never to return; the Sage (then) restored the island to its former place. 79. The highly satisfied Yakkhas and the highly pleased Rakkhasas, having received this excellent island which they desired, all began to laugh with great joy, and all went to celebrate the festival called Nakkhattamaha. 80. When Buddha saw that joy had been restored to these non-human beings, he the Jina, having exerted his benevolence towards them, pronounced the spell of protection. Having walked three times round the island, for the sake of its ever-lasting protection and the expulsion of the Yakkha hosts, — 81. having comforted the Pisācas and (other) non-human beings, having established a guard and restored a lasting peace, having put down all distress in the island, the Tathāgata returned to Uruvela.

Here ends (Buddha's) subjection of the Yakkhas."

[Quelle: Dipavamsa : an ancient historical record / ed. and translated by Hermann Oldenberg [1854 - 1920]. -- 1879. -- S. 120 - 123.]


 ti Mahiyaṅgaṇāgamanaṃ niṭṭhitaṃ.

Der Bericht von Buddhas Besuch in Mahiyaṅgaṇa ist beendet.


5. Buddhas Besuch in Nāgadīpa


Nāgadīpāgamana

Der Besuch in Nāgadīpa


44. Mahākāruṇiko satthā,
sabbalokahite rato;
bodhito pañcame vasse,
vasaṃ Jetavane jino.

44. Der barmherzigste Lehrer, dem am Heil der ganzen Welt lag, der Eroberer, weilte im fünften Jahr nach seinem Erwachen1 in Jetavana2.

Kommentar:

1 Im fünften Jahr nach seinem Erwachen,  d.h. nach der Theravādachronologie im Jahre 584 v. Chr.

2 Jetavana in Sāvatthi (heute:  Maheth), der Hauptstadt des Königreichs Kosala. Heute ist Sāvatthi eine unbewohnte Fläche mit wildem Buschwerk.


Abb.: Lage von Sāvatthi (heute Maheth)
(©MS Encarta)

Abb.: Plan des Jetavana

[Bildquelle: Schumann, Hans Wolfgang <1928 - >: Auf den Spuren des Buddha Gotama : eine Pilgerfahrt zu den historischen Stätten. -- Olten [u.a.] : Walter, 1992. -- 184 S. : Ill. ; 24 cm. -- ISBN 3530799890. -- S. 129.]

"Jetavana. - A park in Sāvatthi, in which was built the Anāthapindikārāma. When the Buddha accepted Anāthapindika's invitation to visit Sāvatthi the latter, seeking a suitable place for the Buddha's residence, discovered this park belonging to Jetakumāra. When he asked to be allowed to buy it, Jeta's reply was: "Not even if you could cover the whole place with money." Anāthapindika said that he would buy it at that price, and when Jeta answered that he had had no intention of making a bargain, the matter was taken before the Lords of Justice, who decided that if the price mentioned were paid, Anāthapindika had the right of purchase. Anāthapindika had gold brought down in carts and covered Jetavana with pieces laid side by side. The money brought in the first journey was found insufficient to cover one small spot near the gateway. So Anāthapindika sent his servants back for more, but Jeta, inspired by Anāthapindika's earnestness, asked to be allowed to give this spot. Anāthapindika agreed and Jeta erected there a gateway, with a room over it. Anāthapindika built in the grounds dwelling rooms, retiring rooms, store rooms and service halls, halls with fireplaces, closets, cloisters, halls for exercise, wells, bathrooms, ponds, open and roofed sheds, etc.

It is said  that Anāthapindika paid eighteen crores for the purchase of the site, all of which Jeta spent in the construction of the gateway gifted by him.

Jeta gave, besides, many valuable trees for timber. Anāthapindika himself spent fifty-four crores in connection with the purchase of the park and the buildings erected in it.

The ceremony of dedication was one of great splendour. Not only Anāthapindika himself, but his whole family took part: his son with five hundred other youths, his wife with five hundred other noble women, and his daughters Mahā Subhaddā and Cūla Subhaddā with five hundred other maidens. Anāthapindika was attended by five hundred bankers. The festivities in connection with the dedication lasted for nine months.

Some of the chief buildings attached to the Jetavana are mentioned in the books by special names, viz., Mahāgandhakuti, Kaverimandalamāla, Kosambakuti and Candanamāla. Other buildings are also mentioned - e.g., the Ambalakotthaka-āsanasālā.

All these were built by Anāthapindika; there was another large building erected by Pasenadi and called the Salalaghara. Over the gateway lived a guardian deity to prevent all evildoers from entering. Just outside the monastery was a rājayatana-tree, the residence of the god Samiddhisumana.

In the grounds there seems to have been a large pond which came to be called the Jetavanapokkharanī.

The grounds themselves were thickly covered with trees, giving the appearance of a wooded grove (arañña). On the outskirts of the monastery was a mango-grove. In front of the gateway was the Bodhi-tree planted by Anāthapindika, which came later to be called the Anandabodhi (q.v.). Not far from the gateway was a cave which became famous as the Kapallapūvapabbhāra on account of an incident connected with Macchariya-Kosiya.

Near Jetavana was evidently a monastery of the heretics where Ciñcāmānavikā spent her nights while hatching her conspiracy against the Buddha.

There seems to have been a playground just outside Jetavana used by the children of the neighbourhood, who, when thirsty, would go into Jetavana to drink. The high road to Sāvatthi passed by the edge of Jetavana, and travellers would enter the park to rest and refresh themselves.

According to the Divyāvadāna, the thūpas of Sāriputta and Moggallāna were in the grounds of Jetavana and existed until the time of Asoka. Both Fa Hien and Houien Thsang give descriptions of other incidents connected with the Buddha, which took place in the neighbourhood of Jetavana - e.g., the murder of Sundarikā, the calumny of Ciñcā, Devadatta's attempt to poison the Buddha, etc.

The space covered by the four bedposts of the Buddha's Gandhakuti in Jetavana is one of the four avijahitatthānāni; all Buddhas possess the same, though the size of the actual vihāra differs in the case of the various Buddhas. For Vipassī Buddha, the setthi Punabbasumitta built a monastery extending for a whole league, while for Sikhī, the setthi Sirivaddha made one covering three gavutas. The Sanghārāma built by Sotthiya for Vessabhū was half a league in extent, while that erected by Accuta for Kakusandha covered only one gāvuta. Konagamana's monastery, built by the setthi Ugga, extended for half a gāvuta, while Kassapa's built by Sumangala covered sixteen karīsas. Anāthapindika's monastery covered a space of eighteen karīsas.

The Buddha spent nineteen rainy seasons in Jetavana (DhA.i.3; BuA.3; AA.i.314). It is said that after the Migāramātupāsāda came into being, the Buddha would dwell alternately in Jetavana and Migāramātupāsāda, often spending the day in one and the night in the other (SNA.i.336).

According to a description given by Fa Hien, the vihāra was originally in seven sections (storeys?) and was filled with all kinds of offerings, embroidered banners, canopies, etc., and the lamps burnt from dusk to dawn.

One day a rat, holding in its mouth a lamp wick, set fire to the banners and canopies, and all the seven sections were entirely destroyed. The vihāra was later rebuilt in two sections. There were two main entrances, one on the east, one on the west, and Fa Hsien found thūpas erected at all the places connected with the Buddha, each with its name inscribed.

The vihāra is almost always referred to as Jetavane Anāthapindikassa Ārāma. The Commentaries say that this was deliberate.

In the district of Saheth-Maheth, with which the region of Sāvatthi is identified, Saheth is considered to be Jetavana."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v. -- Dort Quellennachweise.]

45. Mahodarassa nāgassa,
tathā Cūḷodarassa ca;
mātulabhāgineyyānaṃ,
maṇipallaṅkahetukaṃ.
46. Disvā sapārisajjānaṃ,
saṅgāmaṃ paccupaṭṭhitaṃ;

45./46. Er sah, dass ein Krieg bevorstand wegen eines Edelsteinthrones zwischen den Nāga1 Mahodara und Cūlodara, Mutterbruder und Neffe, samt Gefolge. 

Kommentar:

1 Nāga sind kobraförmige Wesen, sie sind Hüter der Schätze der Erde (darum der Edelsteinthron).

"Nāgā

A class of beings classed with Garuḷas and Supannas and playing a prominent part in Buddhist folk lore. They are gifted with miraculous powers and great strength. Generally speaking, they are confused with snakes, chiefly the hooded Cobra, and their bodies are described as being those of snakes, though they can assume human form at will. They are broadly divided into two classes: those that live on land (thalaja) and those that live on water (jalaja). The Jalaja-nāgā live in rivers as well as in the sea, while the Thalaja-nāgā are regarded as living beneath the surface of the earth. Several Nāga dwellings are mentioned in the books: e.g.,

  • Mañjerika-bhavana under Sineru,
  • Daddara-bhavana at the foot of Mount Daddara in the Himālaya,
  • the Dhatarattha-nāgā under the river Yamunā,
  • the Nābhāsā Nāgā in Lake Nabhasa,
  • and also the Nāgas of Vesāli, Tacchaka, and Payāga (D.ii.258).

The Vinaya (ii.109) contains a list of four royal families of Nāgas (Ahirājakulāni): Virūpakkhā, Erāpathā, Chabyāputtā and Kanhagotamakā. Two other Nāga tribes are generally mentioned together: the Kambalas and the Assataras. It is said (SA.iii.120) that all Nāgas have their young in the Himālaya.

Stories are given - e.g., in the Bhūridatta Jātaka - of Nāgas, both male and female, mating with humans; but the offspring of such unions are watery and delicate (J.vi.160). The Nāgas are easily angered and passionate, their breath is poisonous, and their glance can be deadly (J.vi.160, 164). They are carnivorous (J.iii.361), their diet consisting chiefly of frogs (J.vi.169), and they sleep, when in the world of men, on ant hills (ibid., 170). The enmity between the Nāgas and the Garulas is proverbial (D.ii.258). At first the Garulas did not know how to seize the Nāgas, because the latter swallowed large stones so as to be of great weight, but they learnt how in the Pandara Jātaka. The Nāgas dance when music is played, but it is said (J.vi.191) that they never dance if any Garula is near (through fear) or in the presence of human dancers (through shame).

The best known of all Nāgas is Mahākāla, king of Mañjerika-bhavana. He lives for a whole kappa, and is a very pious follower of the Buddha. The Nāgas of his world had the custodianship of a part of the Buddha's relics till they were needed for the Māha Thūpa (Mhv.xxxi.27f.), and when the Bodhi tree was being brought to Ceylon they did it great honour during the voyage (Mbv. p.. 163f.). Other Nāga kings are also mentioned as ruling with great power and majesty and being converted to the Buddha's faith - e.g., Aravāla, Apalālā, Erapatta, Nandopananda, and Pannaka. (See also Ahicchatta and Ahināga.) In the Atānātiya Sutta (D.iii.198f.), speaking of dwellers of the Cātummahārajika world, the Nāgas are mentioned as occupying the Western Quarter, with Virūpokkha as their king.

The Nāgas had two chief settlements in Ceylon, in Nāgadīpa (q.v.) and at the mouth of the river Kalyānī. It was to settle a dispute between two Nāga chiefs of Nāgadīpa, Mahodara and Cūlodara, that the Buddha paid his second visit to Ceylon. During that visit he made a promise to another Nāga-king, Manjakkhika of Kalyānī, to pay him a visit, and the Buddha's third visit was in fulfilment of that undertaking (Mhv.i.48f.).

The Nāgas form one of the guards set up by Sakka in Sineru against the Asuras (J.i.204). The Nāgas were sometimes worshipped by human beings and were offered sacrifices of milk, rice, fish, meat and strong drink (J.i.497f.). The jewel of the Nāgas is famous for its beauty and its power of conferring wishes to its possessor (J.vi.179, 180).

The word Nāga is often used as an epithet of the Buddha and the Arahants, and in this connection the etymology given is āgum na karotī ti Nāgo (e.g., MNid.201). The Bodhisatta was born several times as king of the Nāgas: Atula, Campeyya, Bhūridatta, Mahādaddara, and Sankhapāla.

In the accounts given of the Nāgas, there is undoubtedly great confusion between the Nāgas as supernatural beings, as snakes, and as the name of certain non Aryan tribes, but the confusion is too difficult to unravel."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

sambuddho Cittamāsassa,
kāḷapakkhe uposathe.
47. Pāto yeva samādāya,
pavaraṃ pattacīvaraṃ;
anukampāya nāgānaṃ,
nāgadīpam upāgami.

46./47. Da nahm der Sambuddha am frühen Morgen des Uposathatags des dunklen Teils des Monats Citta1 seine hervorragenden Almosentopf und Mönchsgewand und ging aus Barmherzigkeit für die Nāgas nach Nāgadīpa2 .  

Kommentar:

1 Monat Citta = erster indischer Monat des Jahres

"Chaitra (Hindi: चैत cait or चैत्र caitr) is a month of the Hindu calendar. In India's national civil calendar, Chaitra is the first month of the year, beginning on 22 March (or 21 March in leap years) and ending on 20 April. It is also the last month in the Bengali calendar (the Bônggabdo [বঙ্গাব্দ]), where it is called Choitro, and in the Nepalese calendar (the Bikram Sambat), where it ends on April 13.

In lunar religious calendars, Chaitra may begin on either the new moon or the full moon around the same time of year, and is usually the first month of the year. The first of Chaitra – North Indian New Year, or Gudi Padwa – is an important festival, as is Ram Navami (9 Chaitra), the birthday of Lord Ram.

In solar religious calendars, Chaitra begins with the Sun's entry into Pisces, and is usually the last month of the year."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaitra. -- Zugriff am 2006-06-01]

2 Nāgadīpa: Jaffnahalbinsel und Nordwestceylon (~ Northern Province), besonders die Insel Nayinativu. Dieses Gebiet ist heute vorwiegend von hinduistischen Tamilen besiedelt


Abb.: Lage von Nāgadīpa (= Jaffna-Halbinsel, besonders Nayinativu) (©MS Encarta)

"Jaffna [யாழ்ப்பாணம்] ; Provinz: Northern; Höhe: 2 - 7 m ü.d.M.

Die Anreise nach Jaffna ist zur Zeit nur unter sehr erschwerten Umständen möglich, da dieses fast ausschließlich von Tamilen bewohnte Gebiet an der nordwestlichen Inselspitze das Zentrum der militärischen Auseinandersetzungen des Bürgerkrieges ist. Der Luftverkehr ist ebenso eingestellt wie die Bahnverbindung von Colombo, die Straßen sind gesperrt und für Ausländer nicht passierbar. Bis zu einer Lösung des Konflikts wird von Reisen nach Jaffna grundsätzlich abzuraten sein.

Schon in der Vergangenheit wurde die Halbinsel Jaffna von Touristen nur selten besucht, seit dem Ausbruch des Bürgerkrieges im Jahre 1983 ist der Fremdenverkehr nahezu völlig zum Erliegen gekommen. Fast alle der ursprünglich hier lebenden Singhalesen wurden vertrieben, ihre Häuser niedergebrannt. Das Stadtbild von Jaffna wird geprägt von den Zerstörungen, die der ethnische Konflikt hervorgerufen hat. Die Kontinuität der hier existenten, aus dem Süden Indiens stammenden drawidischen Kultur wurde jedoch schon früher unterbrochen, als die Kolonialherren die alten Tempel- und Palastbauten zerstörten.

Dabei bietet die Landschaft der Halbinsel einen erstaunlich scharfen Kontrast zu den übrigen Landesteilen. Sie ist karg und wird von einer genügsamen Vegetation dominiert. Die Bewässerung der landwirtschaftlich genutzten Felder erfolgt nicht -- wie ein paar Dutzend Kilometer weiter südlich -- durch Stauseen und Kanäle, sondern durch Brunnen. Trotzdem zeugen zahlreiche kleine Felder vom Fleiß der Bevölkerung, der es allen naturgegebenen Widrigkeiten zum Trotz gelang, dem Boden einige Erträge abzuringen.

Die Menschen, kleine, sehr dunkelhäutige Tamilen, seit altersher hier ansässig, sind liebenswürdig und gastfreundlich. Der größte Teil (nach der Vertreibung der singhalesischen Bevölkerung nur noch ca. 60000 Einwohner) lebt dichtgedrängt in der Stadt Jaffna und hängt dem hinduistischen Glauben an."

[Quelle: Sri Lanka. -- Ostfildern : Baedeker, ©1999. -- (Baedeker Allianz Reiseführer). -- ISBN 3895254371. -- S. 166. -- {Wenn Sie HIER klicken, können Sie dieses Buch  bei amazon.de bestellen}]

48. Mahodaro pi so nāgo,
tadā rājā mahiddhiko;
samudde nāgabhavane,
dasaḍḍhasatayojane.

48. Der genannte Nāga Mahodara war damals wunderkräftiger König im Ozean1, in einem Nāgareich, das sich über 500 Yojanas2 erstreckte. 

Kommentar:

1 d.h. er war Herrscher eines mythischen Seeschlangenreichs

"Neben den Meeresschildkröten sind die Seeschlangen (Hydrophiidae) die bekanntesten der heute im Meer lebenden Reptilien. Sie gehören zu den Schlangen (Serpentes) und werden innerhalb dieser in die Verwandtschaft der Vipernartigen eingeordnet. Ihre nächsten Verwandten sind dabei offensichtlich die Giftnattern (Elapidae), zu denen auch die Kobras (Gattung Naja) gehören. Von den Seeschlangen sind etwa 56 Arten bekannt.


Abb.: Porträt einer Seeschlange

Merkmale der Seeschlangen

Die meisten Seeschlangen erreichen Körperlängen zwischen 1,2 und 1,4 Metern, einige Arten können jedoch auch deutlich über 2 Meter lang werden, etwa Hydrophis cyanocinctus mit 2,5 Metern oder Hydrophis spiralis mit bis zu 2,75 Metern. Meistens werden die Weibchen deutlich länger als die Männchen. Das Gewicht der Tiere ist abhängig von Art und Geschlecht sowie vom Ernährungszustand. Die gestreifte Seeschlange Laticauda colubrina wiegt dabei im Schnitt etwa 0,9 bis 1,3 Kilogramm bei einer Körperlänge von bis zu 1,80 Metern. (Voris et al. 1998)

Auch in der Körperform variieren die Seeschlangen. Astrotia stokesii etwa ist im Verhältnis zur Körperlänge eher kräftig gebaut und wirkt entsprechend plump. Viele Hydrophis-Arten haben einen extrem langen und schmalen Kopf- und Nackenbereich, der früher zu der Annahme führte, sie würden sich nur von entsprechend dünnen Aalen ernähren. Heute weiß man, dass sie in der Lage sind, Beutetiere zu schlucken, deren Körperumfang dem doppelten des Umfangs der Schlange entspricht. Der schmale Kopf dient offensichtlich dem Aufspüren von Beutetieren in engen Verstecken.

Seeschlangen unterscheiden sich aufgrund ihrer marinen Lebensweise in einigen Merkmalen deutlich von anderen Schlangen. Dabei ist das auffälligste sichtbare Merkmal der seitlich abgeflachte Schwanz, der allen Seeschlangen gemein ist. Hinzu kommt meist eine reduzierte Anzahl von Bauchschuppen (Ventralia, außer bei den Laticauda-Arten, welche sich auch an Land bewegen können) und die unter der Zunge liegende Salzdrüse, die der Ausscheidung von überschüssigem Salz dient. Des weiteren ist der rechte Lungenflügel der Seeschlangen stark vergrößert und reicht bis in die Schwanzspitze der Tiere. Teile der Lunge dienen zudem als hydrostatisches Organ. Die Tiere können bis zu zwei Stunden und bis zu 180 Meter tief tauchen. Dabei helfen ihnen auch die ventilartigen Verschlüsse ihrer Atmungslöcher. Wahrscheinlich sind sie in der Lage, Sauerstoff auch über die Haut aufzunehmen und so eine bessere Versorgung zu gewährleisten.

Einige der beschriebenen Merkmale kommen auch bei anderen, nicht näher verwandten Schlangentaxa vor. So besitzen die im Brackwasser lebenden Warzenschlangen ebenfalls eine Salzdrüse, und eine Reduktion der Ventralia kann bei verschiedenen wühlenden Schlangen gefunden werden, etwa bei den Blindschlangen.

Vorkommen

Die Seeschlangen bewohnen die tropischen Meeresregionen des Indischen Ozeans und des Pazifischen Ozeans. Man trifft sie entsprechend vom Persischen Golf bis in die japanischen Küstengewässer sowie an den Küsten der südostasiatischen Inseln bis nach Australien. Bis auf die sehr weit verbreitete Plättchen-Seeschlange (Pelamis platurus) leben alle Seeschlangen in Küstennähe.

Die Plättchen-Seeschlange hat sich außer in den genannten Gebieten bis an die Küsten Madagaskars und Südost-Afrikas sowie an die Westküste des tropischen Amerikas ausgebreitet, wobei sie auch schon im Panama-Kanal angetroffen wurde. Einige Wissenschaftler befürchten, dass sich die Schlange über den Panama-Kanal auch in die Karibik ausbreiten könnte und hier als Neozoon ein schwerwiegendes ökologisches Problem auslösen könnte.

Alle anderen Arten leben vornehmlich im Flachwasser an den Küsten, häufig im Bereich von Flussmündungen (etwa Enhydrina schistosa). In diesen Flüssen können sie mitunter auch weit ins Landesinnere eindringen, allerdings ist mit Hydrophis semperi nur eine Art bekannt, die dauerhaft im Süßwasser lebt. Das Verbreitungsgebiet dieser Schlange ist auf den etwa 270 km2 großen Lake Taal auf der Philippineninsel Luzon beschränkt. Von Laticauda crockeri sind auf den Salomonen ebenfalls Süßwasserpopulationen bekannt. Im Roten Meer kommen (wahrscheinlich) keine Seeschlangen vor, da die Salzkonzentration hier mit 4 % offensichtlich zu hoch ist, in den Verbreitungsgebieten liegt der Salzgehalt bei maximal 3,5 %.

Lebensweise

Ernährung

Seeschlangen sind wie beinahe alle Schlangen Räuber und ernähren sich vor allem von Fischen. Dabei sind einige Arten regelrechte Nahrungsspezialisten. Laticauda columbrina ernährt sich etwa vornehmlich von bestimmten Meeresaalen und Hydrophis ornatus ist auf Welse spezialisiert. Die Plättchen-Seeschlange lebt und jagt als Freiwasserspezialist beinahe ausschließlich entlang der Driftlinien, also dem Bereich, wo zwei Wasserschichten aufeinander liegen. Hier lebt vor allem Plankton, welches Jungfische der verschiedensten Freiwasserarten anlockt. Bei Magenuntersuchungen bei dieser Art wurden entsprechend Vertreter von 21 Fischarten gefunden, fast ausschließlich Jungfische. Die in den Riffspalten jagenden Seeschlangen erbeuten demgegenüber meist recht große Beutefische.

Manche Seeschlangen gehen auch nachts auf die Jagd. Sie finden dann ihre Beutefische durch ihren ausgezeichneten Geruchssinn.

Neben den Spezialisten gibt es natürlich auch Seeschlangenarten, die ein sehr großes Beutespektrum haben. So ernährt sich etwa Aipysurus laevis außer von Fischen auch von deren Laich sowie von Kopffüßern.

Fortpflanzung

Die Seeschlangen sind bis auf die Laticauda-Arten lebendgebärend und bekommen ihre Jungen im Meer, wo sie ihr gesamtes Leben verbringen. Die Laticauda-Arten verlassen demgegenüber das Meer und legen ihre Eier an Land ab, wo sie auch außerhalb der Paarungs- und Eiablagezeit recht häufig anzutreffen sind und Ruhepausen einlegen. Zur Fortpflanzungszeit besiedeln die Schlangen in sehr großen Zahlen verschiedene Inseln, vor allem auf den Philippinen finden sich dann Laticauda laticauda und Laticauda semifasciata in vielen tausend Exemplaren ein. Allgemein sind sonnen- und wärmesuchende Seeschlangen oft auch auf See in großen Gruppen an der Wasseroberfläche anzutreffen.

Natürliche Feinde

Neben dem Menschen haben die Seeschlangen vor allem aufgrund ihres sehr wirksamen Giftes kaum wirkliche Fressfeinde. Es ist anzunehmen, dass sie gelegentlich von Haien oder Walen gefressen werden, Belege dafür fehlen allerdings weitgehend. Der Tigerhai soll gegen das Gift der Seeschlangen immun sein. Weiterhin wurden größere Adler, insbesondere Seeadler, beobachtet, die Seeschlangen aus dem Meer fischten, als jene zum Luftholen und zum Teil auch zum Aufwärmen an der Sonne an die Oberfläche kamen, und sie verspeisten.

Seeschlangengift

Seeschlangengift gilt als eines der giftigsten Schlangengifte überhaupt. Die Tiere besitzen feststehende Giftzähne im Vorderteil des Maules, sie gehören entsprechend zu den so genannten "proteoglyphen" Schlangen. Dabei sind die Zähne etwas kürzer als bei den landlebenden Giftnattern; ihre Länge reicht bei den meisten Arten jedoch aus, um menschliche Haut zu durchdringen. Ausnahmen bilden hier einige Arten, die sich vornehmlich auf die Ernährung durch Fischlaich spezialisiert haben.

Zur Verteidigung setzen die Tiere ihren Biss, außer in der Paarungszeit, nur sehr selten ein, stattdessen fliehen sie lieber. Besonders in Südostasien werden die Tiere von den Küstenfischern gern gefangen, wobei diese sie ohne größere Schutzmaßnahmen mit den Händen hinter dem Kopf greifen. Trotz ihrer Bissfaulheit kommt es besonders durch diesen sehr sorglosen Umgang der Fischer mit den Tieren nicht selten zu tödlich verlaufenden Bissen, vor allem, da in den kleinen Fischerdörfern nur selten Antiserum zur Bissbehandlung zur Verfügung steht. So sind über 90 % aller dokumentierten Seeschlangenbisse als Unfälle beim Fang der Tiere anzusehen, die meisten Bissunfälle sind von Enhydrina schistosa und Hydrophis cyanocinctus bekannt. Der Biss ist beinahe schmerzfrei und die Hautverletzung wegen der Feinheit der Zähne oft kaum zu sehen, auch Blutungen treten kaum auf. Das Gift selbst, eine farblose bis gelbliche und zähe Flüssigkeit, besitzt einen sehr hohen Anteil an Neurotoxinen, die bei den Beutetieren und potentiellen Angreifern Lähmungen hervorrufen. Dazu gehören vor allem Lähmungen der Extremitäten- und Atemmuskulatur (Dyspnoe) sowie Ausfälle von Hirnnerven (Ptosis). An der Bissstelle selbst kommt es zu starken Nekrosen mit Funktionseinschränkung bis zum Verlust der betroffenen Extremität. Als wichtigster Bestandteil im Gift gilt das Neurotomin, welches im Endeffekt auch für den Tod verantwortlich ist. Die Giftdrüsen enthalten 10 bis 15 Milligramm Gift; bereits drei bis zehn Milligramm wirken aber tödlich. Allerdings verläuft nur etwa ein Viertel aller Bisse kritisch, da nicht immer Gift in die Bissstelle kommt. Etwa fünf bis 35 Prozent dieser Vergifteten sterben an dem Biss. Eine Erklärung für diese doch relativ geringe Mortalität bietet das Sparsamkeitsprinzip. Es ist anzunehmen, dass die Seeschlangen ihr Gift nur in äußerst geringen Dosen abgeben, da für die Vergiftung ihrer Opfer (meist Fische) bereits kleine Mengen ausreichen.

Die ersten Anzeichen einer Nervenlähmung zeigen sich beim Menschen meist erst nach mehr als 30 Minuten, es kann allerdings auch einige Stunden dauern. Anfangs kommt es zu einem Trockenheitsgefühl im Hals und einer Zungenlähmung, meistens gemeinsam mit Übelkeit und Erbrechen. Den ersten Anzeichen folgen oft Angstattacken, Unruhe oder auch Euphorie. Nachfolgend werden die Extremitäten gefühllos, beginnend mit den Beinen. Die weitere Lähmung ist aufsteigend und setzt sich über die Bauch- und Brustmuskulatur fort, schließlich kann nur noch das Zwerchfell die Atmung leisten. Bis zu seinem Tod bleibt der Gebissene bei vollem Bewusstsein, obwohl er für einen Beobachter einen schlafenden Eindruck macht. Bei 25% der Todesopfer tritt der Tod nach spätestens 8 Stunden nach dem Biss ein, bei 50% innerhalb von acht bis 24 Stunden und bei den verbleibenden 25% nach bis zu drei Tagen.

Bei allen Seeschlangenbissen wird als Erste Hilfe die so genannte "Pressure/Immobilization Technique" empfohlen. Außerdem muss die Atmung gewährleistet werden, indem ein Tubus in den Hals eingeführt (Intubation) und mit dessen Hilfe beatmet wird. Weitere Maßnahmen sind von den auftretenden Symptomen abhängig, für beinahe alle Arten der Seeschlangengifte gibt es Gegengifte (Antiserum beziehungsweise Antivenin).

Wirtschaftliche Bedeutung

Seeschlangen als Fleischlieferanten

Die wirtschaftliche Nutzung der Seeschlangen ist für zwei unterschiedliche Zwecke relevant, zur Ernährung und zur Lederverarbeitung. Dabei dienen Seeschlangen vor allem in den küstennahen Gebieten der Philippinen, auf den Gesellschaftsinseln sowie in Japan als beliebte Fleischlieferanten. In Japan werden Seeschlangen aus den Philippinen importiert, da der Bedarf die Fangzahlen übersteigt.

Zubereitet werden die Tiere ähnlich wie Fische auf vielfältige Weise. Seeschlangenfleisch gilt als Aphrodisiakum und ist entsprechend beliebt. Besonders bei Japanern geschätzt ist die lebende Schlange, die direkt am Tisch getötet und roh mit Sojasauce verspeist wird. Auf den Philippinen sind gekochte, gebratene oder frittierte Seeschlangenteile allerdings beliebter.

Seeschlangen als Lederlieferanten

Als Lederlieferanten spielen die Seeschlangen beinahe ausschließlich auf den Philippinen eine Rolle. Als meeresbewohnende Lebewesen unterliegen diese Tiere nicht dem Schutz des "Department of Environment and Natural Resources" (DENR), die den Handel mit Wildtieren und ihren Produkten auf den Inseln reguliert und für alle Reptilien verbietet. Die Zuständigkeit für die Seeschlangen liegt im "Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources" (BFAR) und ein Verbot zur Nutzung der marinen Ressourcen ist in einem Inselstaat wie den Philippinen mit einem sehr hohen Anteil an Menschen, die vom Fischfang leben, weder vorgesehen noch durchsetzbar. Des weiteren treten die meisten Seeschlangen in ihren Verbreitungsgebieten in so großen Individuendichten auf, dass eine Gefährdung aktuell nicht zu erkennen ist.

Lohnend ist der Fang von Seeschlangen für die Lederindustrie auch nur dort, wo diese in großen Mengen auftreten, da der Lederpreis für diese Tiere im Verhältnis zu anderem Schlangenleder gering ist. Das lukrativste Fanggebiet ist dabei die Koralleninsel Gato vor der Küste von Cebu, da hier vor allem die Plattschwanz-Seeschlangen sehr häufig sind. 1949 berichteten etwa Herre und Rabor, dass in einem einzigen Jahr auf der Insel über 20.000 Laticauda fasciata gefangen wurden. 1960 wurde die Genehmigung zum Fang der Seeschlangen auf und um Gato an einen Geschäftsmann übertragen, und in der Folgezeit entstand in Tapulan auf Cebu der erste vollständig auf die Häutung der Tiere spezialisierte Betrieb, in dem die Verarbeitung bis heute weitgehend in Handarbeit geschieht. 1976 wurden noch 13.052 Laticauda gefangen, bis 1981 reduzierte sich der Fang auf gerade mal noch 1.454 Exemplare; der Seeschlangenfang wurde zu einem Nebenerwerb einzelner Fischer.

In der Folgezeit wurden verstärkt auch andere Seeschlangenarten für die Lederproduktion genutzt, vor allem verschiedene Hydrophis-Arten, Astrotia stokesi und Lapemis hardwicki, die vor allem aus der Viayan Sea stammen.

Bestandsgefährdung der Seeschlangen

Der Fang von Seeschlangen als Nahrungsquelle spielt nur eine sehr untergeordnete Rolle und führt entsprechend zu keiner Bedrohung der Tiere. Anders sieht die Situation durch den Fang für die Lederproduktion aus. Zumindest lokal kam es hierdurch zu sehr starken Einbrüchen der Art Laticauda fasciata auf der Insel Gato, wo Anfang der 1980er Jahre in den einfach zu findenden Verstecken kaum noch Schlangen gefunden werden konnten. Der Populationseinbruch hängt vor allem mit der Ortstreue der Tiere zusammen, die immer wieder die gleichen Inseln zur Fortpflanzung aufsuchen, eine intensive Besammlung dieser Inseln führt zwangsläufig zu einem Rückgang der dort ansässigen Populationen.

Eine Gefährdung der rein marinen Arten durch die Lederindustrie ist nicht anzunehmen, da es hierbei keine gezielte Ausbeutung gibt, die Fangraten als Beifang von Fischkuttern sind dabei sicher das größere Problem. Nach Ward (1996) wurden etwa allein von Garnelenschleppern aufgrund der engmaschigen Netze in den Gewässern Nordaustraliens im Jahr 1990 etwa 81.000 Seeschlangen gefangen und getötet. In den letzten 30 Jahren haben die Garnelenfischer hochgerechnet entsprechend mehrere Millionen Seeschlangen als Beifang getötet, hinzu kommen etliche Tausend Tiere aus den Netzen der Fischschlepper. Wie sich diese Fangzahlen auf die Artenbestände und -zusammensetzungen auswirken ist bislang nicht geklärt.

Systematik

Die Seeschlangen gehören in die nähere Verwandtschaft der Giftnattern (Elapidae), heute werden sie häufig auch als Unterfamilie Hydrophiinae innerhalb der Giftnattern eingruppiert. Ein Fossilbeleg für die Abstammung der Seeschlangen ist allerdings bislang nicht bekannt, einen Anhaltspunkt für die Zeit ihrer Entstehung liefern daher einstweilen nur die aus dem unteren Miozän Europas bekannten ersten Giftnatter-Fossilien.

Innerhalb der Seeschlangen werden traditionell zwei Unterfamilien, die "Echten Seeschlangen" (Hydrophiinae, nicht zu verwechseln mit der oben genannten Gruppe) und die "Plattschwanz-Seeschlangen" (Laticaudinae, nur mit der Gattung Laticauda) unterschieden. Nach neueren Untersuchungen wurde diese Unterteilung aufgegeben und alternativ werden drei oder vier verschiedene Gattungsgruppen zusammengefasst. Die folgende Darstellung folgt der Systematik nach Rasmussen (1997), die im wesentlichen auf Merkmalen des Schädels basiert, etwa der Form des Parietale und des Maxillare:

  • Aipysurus-Gruppe
    • Aipysurus
    • Amydocephalus
  • Hydrophis-Gruppe
    • Acalyptophis
    • Astrotia
    • Enhydrina
    • Ephalophis
    • Hydrelaps
    • Hydrophis
    • Kerilia
    • Kolpophis
    • Lapemis
    • Parahydrophis
    • Pelamis
    • Thalassophina
    • Thalassophis
  • Laticauda-Gruppe
    • Laticauda

Molekulare Untersuchungen zur Phylogenese der Seeschlangen nach Keogh et. al (1998) auf der Basis von Cytochrom b and 16S rRNA-Sequenzen legen eine noch weitere Zerlegung der ursprünglichen Systematik nahe, da nach dieser außer den klassischen Unterfamilien teilweise auch die neu gebildeten Gattungs-Gruppen und sogar etablierte Gattungen als nicht-natürliche Gruppen (Paraphyla) dargestellt werden."

[Quelle: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seeschlangen. -- Zugriff am 2006-04-26]

2 Yojana: Strecke, die ein Ochsengespann an einem Tage zurücklegt (ca. 11 km.), d.h. insgesamt ca. 5500 km


Abb.: Nāgakönig. -- Wächterstein. -- Mahiyaṅgaṇa-Stūpa


Abb.: Detail: Kopf des Nāgakönigs mit den Kobrahauben

[Bildquelle: Sri Lanka : aus Legende, Märchen, historischer Überlieferung und Bericht / hrsg. von Heinz Mode. --
Hanau : Müller & Kiepenheuer, 1981. -- ISBN 3-7833-8133-9. -- S. Abb. 14]

49. Kaṇiṭṭhikā tassa kaṇhāa,
vaḍḍhamānamhi pabbate;
nāgarājassa dinnāsi,
tassa Cūḷodaro suto.

a Geiger: Kaṇṇā

49. Seine jüngere Schwester Kannā war mit dem Nāgakönig auf dem Vaddhamānaberg verheiratet. Ihr Sohn war Cūḷodara.

50. Tassa mātāmaho mātu,
maṇipallaṅkam uttamaṃ;
datvā kālakatā nāgīa,
mātulena tathā hi so.
51. Ahosi bhāgineyyassa,
saṅgāmo paccupaṭṭhito;
pabbateyyā pi nāgā te,
ahesuñ hi mahiddhikā.

a Geiger:  kālakato nāgo

50./51. Dessen Großvater mütterlicherseits gab seiner Mutter einen herausragenden Edelsteinthron, dann ist dieser Nāga gestorben. Deswegen drohte dieser Krieg des Neffen mit seinem Onkel mütterlicherseits1. Diese Bergnāga waren sehr wundermächtig.

Kommentar:

1 Es handelt sich also um einen Konflikt zwischen matrilinearer (Neffe) und patrilinearer (Onkel) Erbfolge

52. Samiddhisumano nāma,
devo Jetavane ṭhitaṃ;
rājāyatanam ādāya,
attano bhavanaṃ subhaṃ.
53. Buddhānumatiyā yeva,
chattākāraṃ jinopari;
dhārayanto upāgañchi,
ṭhānaṃ taṃ pubbavuṭṭhakaṃ.

52./53.  Ein Gott namens Samiddhisumano nahm einen in Jetavana stehenden Königreichbaum1 (Buchanania latifolia), seine eigene schöne Wohnstatt, und hielt ihn mit der Erlaubnis Buddhas wie einen Schirm über dem Eroberer und folgte ihm zum Ort, wo der Gott früher gewohnt hatte [d.h. Nāgadīpa].

Kommentar:

1 Königreichbaum: Buchanania latifolia Roxb.


Abb.: Buchanania latifolia Roxb. (Anacardiaceae)
[Bildquelle: http://research.kahaku.go.jp/botany/Tailand/plant/picture_page/58.html. -- Zugriff am 2001-05-08]

"Buchanania lanzan Spreng. syn. B. latifolia Roxb.

Almondette Tree, Cheronjee

Beng.—Chironji, piyal; Guj. & Mar.—Charoli; Hindi— Achar, chironji, piyar, Kan.—Murkali, nurkale; Mai.—Munga pera; Oriya—Cham; Sans.—Priyalan, thapasa-priya; Tam.—Morala, mudaima; Tel.— Morli, morlu chettu, sara.

Andhra Pradesh—Charwari; Punjab—Charoli: Uttar Pradesh—Kath-bhilawa, piar, piyal.

An evergreen tree with a straight, cylindrical trunk up to 15 m in height, commonly found throughout the greater part of India in dry deciduous forests, up to an altitude of 1,200 m, and in the sub-Himalayan tract up to 900 m. Branches tomentose when young; bark rough; leaves thickly coriaceous, broadly oblong, obtuse, base rounded; flowers small, greenish white, in axillary and terminal panicles; drupes ovoid or globose, black, 8-12 mm in diam; stones hard.

The tree is a common associate in sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.f.) forests and occupies the lower canopy. It is a moderate light-demander, somewhat sensitive to drought and very sensitive to frost. In its natural habitat, the absolute maximum shade-temperature ranges between 40 and 60°, the absolute minimum between - 1 and 13°, and the annual precipitation between 75 and 215 cm. It is often found in abundance on clayey and laterite soils, but does not grow on waterlogged soils. It is useful for clothing the dry hillsides, and is valued for the rapidity with which it covers bare arid slopes. The tree serves as a host for the Kusumi strain of lac-insect. The settlement of larvae on the twigs is reported to be uniform, and good. The formation of lac is in continuous encrustations with well-developed lac cells (Khan, Indian For, 1953, 79, 184; Troup, I, 240; Bor, 266; Purkay-astha & Krishnaswami, CurrSci, 1961, 30, 152).

The tree flowers during Jan-March, and the fruits ripen during April-June. The seeds, lying on the ground exposed to the sun, have a very low germination potential. However, fresh seeds have been found to have a fertility of c70 per cent. The tree can be raised by direct sowing of seeds (Troup, I, 240; Krishnaswamy, 1956, 71).

The wood and bark are attacked by various borers. The larvae of Lycaenesthes lycaenina lycaenina Fel-der bore the floral buds [Bhasin et al, Indian For Bull, NS, Entomol, No. 171(2), 1956,40].

The kernels have a pleasant, sub-acidic flavour, are nutritious and eaten raw or roasted. They form a common substitute for almonds in flavouring sweetmeats, confectionery and betelnut powder. They are reported to be used by tribals of Gujarat as brain tonic. An ointment made out of the kernels is used to cure itch of the skin and to remove blemishes from the face. The kernels contain : moisture, 3.0; protein, 19.0; fat, 59.1; fibre, 3.8; carbohydrates, 12.1; and minerals, 3.0g/100 g; calcium, 279.0; phosphorus, 528.0 (phytin phosphorus, 158.0); iron, 8.5; oxalic acid, 2.0; magnesium, 373.0; sodium, 10.2; potassium, 436.0; copper, 0.86; sulphur, 186.0; chlorine, 25.0; thiamine, 0.69; riboflavin,0.53; niacin, 1.5; and vitamin C, 5.0mg/100 g; energy, 656 K cal/100g (Hedrick, 122; Burkill, I, 378; Shah et al, J econ taxon Bot, 1981, 2, 173; Singh & Maheshwari, ibid, 1985, 6, 544; Mitra & Mehrotra, Bull bot Surv India, 1980, 22, 68; Nutritive Value of Indian Foods, 83,119,129).

The kernels yield a light yellow, sweet oil (35.4-47.2%) with a mild, pleasant aroma. The oil is used as a substitute for olive and almond oils in indigenous medicine. The oil has the following constants : sp gr30°, 0.9232; njf, 1.46; sap val, 193.2; iod val, 62.4; and acid val, 32.7. The fatty acid composition of the oil is: myristic, 0.14; palmitic, 28.9; stearic, 8.1; oleic, 57.4; and linoleic, 5.5%. The oil on direct inter-esterification, yields a product which may be suitable as a coating material for delayed-action tablets. The oil also appears to be a promising commercial source of palmitic and oleic acids. It is applied to glandular swellings of the neck (Chopra et al, 1958, 498; Kirtikar & Basu, I, 660; Nadkarni, I, 222; Bur-kill, I, 378; Eckey, 615; Mitra & Mehrotra, loc. cit.; Sengupta & Roychoudhury, J Sci Fd Agric, 1911, 28, 463).

The wood is light grey to greyish brown, sometimes with a light yellow cast; heartwood dark brown and rather lustrous when first exposed. The wood is light (wt, 577 kg/m3), strong, even and straight-grained, and coarse-textured. It seasons easily and is fairly durable if kept dry and free from white ants. The data for the comparative suitability of timber, expressed as percentages of the same properties of teak, are : wt, 73; strength as a beam, 50; stiffness as a beam, 59; suitability as a post, 48; shock-resisting ability, 49; retention of shape, 72; shear, 66; surface-hardness, 35; and nail- or screw-holding property, 77. The wood is utilized as small beams to support light roofing and rafters, in mining, for making doors and window-frames, bedsteads, boxes and yokes, and making cheap furniture. It is suitable for matches. It is a medium fuelwood (calorific val: sapwood- 4,446 cals; heartwood- 4,612 cals) [Pearson & Brown, I, 327; Rawat & Rawat, Indian For Rec, N S, Timb Mech, 1960, 1(12), 185; Sekhar & Gulati, ibid,1969, 2(1), 26; Krishna & Ramaswami, Indian For Bull, N S,Chem, No. 79,1932,13J.

The stem exudes a pale or dark-coloured gum which occurs in large, clear and vitreous tears. The gum is partially soluble, and is suitable for dressing textiles. It is also used in diarrhoea and intercostal pains. In Andhra Pradesh, the gum, dissolved in cow's milk, is used internally in rheumatic pains. The bark, in dried condition, is in the form of channelled pieces of varying sizes. Below the exfoliated cork, it appears reddish brown, fairly smooth with fibrous surface; its powder is buff to brown in colour. It possesses slightly pungent odour and astringent taste, and contains: ash, 2.25; and tannins, 13.40%. The presence of alkaloids, reducing sugars and saponins is also reported. The bark furnishes a natural varnish and is used in tanning in Kerala. It yields a dark reddish brown leather of somewhat stiff and harsh texture (Howes, 1949, 57; Howes, 1953, 273; Bhatta-charjee & Das, Econ Bot, 1969, 23, 274; Rama Rao, 99; Kirtikar & Basu, I, 661; Mitra & Mehrotra, Herba hung, 1981, 20, 17; Hemadri, Ancient Sci Life, 1981-82, 1,117; Chopra etal, 1958,498).

The leaves are reported to be valued for their tonic and cardiotonic properties, and their powder is a common medicine for wounds. They contain : ash, 13.14; total crude tannins (gallo-tannins, 0.35), 2.64%. The presence of triterpenoids, saponins, reducing sugars and flavonoids is also reported. The leaves are used as a fodder for cattle, sheep and goats 'Mehrotra & Mitra, Bull med-ethno-bot Res, 1980, 1. 338; Malhotra & Moorthy, Bull bot Surv India, 1973, 15, 13; Sundararaj & Balasubramanyam, 46).

B. axillaris (Desr.) Ramam. syn. B. angustifolia Roxb. [Buchanans Mango, Cuddapah Almond; Hindi—Piyala; Kan.—Murligidda; Mai. — Chaara par-uppu; Tarn.—Mudamaah, saraparuppu; Te\.—Pedda sara, saarappappu (seeds)] is a stout, straight-stemmed, glabrous tree, 6 m in height and 60-90 cm in girth, commonly found in open scrub and dry deciduous forests of peninsular India. The kernels of the seeds are reported to be the best among the species, and are largely collected and eaten. The species has uses similar to those of B. lanzan. Besides, an oil, from cut bark, is used as an illuminant and in varnish. The timber is similar in structure to that of B. lanzan, but is not durable and is susceptible to insect-attack. It is used for construction of temporary sheds, yokes and sometimes in planking. It is suitable for making packing-cases. An ethanolic extract (50%) of the aerial part showed CNS depressant activity in mice (Fl Hassan, 374; Rama Rao, 99; Sundararaj & Balasubramanyam, 46; Fl Madras, I, 184; Pearson & Brown, I, 328; Hemadri, loc. cit.; Dhawan et al, Indian J exp Biol, 1980, 18, 594)."

[Quelle: The wealth of India : a dictionary of Indian raw materials & industrial products. -- Raw materials. -- Vol. II. -- Revised ed. -- New Delhi : Council of scientific & industrial research, 1988. -- ISBN 81-85038-03-1. -- S. 308 - 310.]

54. Devo hi so Nāgadīpe,
manusso 'nantare bhave;
ahosi rājāyatana-
ṭhitaṭhāne sa addasa.
55. Paccekabuddhe bhuñjante,
disvā cittaṃ pasādiya;
pattasodhanasākhāyoa,
tesaṃ pādāsi tena so.

a Geiger : -sākhāni

54./55.  Dieser Gott war nämlich in seiner letzten vorhergehenden Geburt ein Mensch in Nāgadīpa gewesen. Damals sah er an der Stelle, wo der Königreichbaum (Buchanania latifolia) stand, Paccekabuddhas1 beim Essen. Als er sie sah, wurde er abgeklärt heiter und gab ihnen Blätter zum Reinigen der Almosentöpfe.

Kommentar:

1 Paccekabuddha: "Welche Person ist ein Paccekasambuddha (Einzelbuddha)? Da erwacht eine Person vollkommen zu den Wahrheiten ohne diese Gesetzmäßigkeiten zuvor (von jemand anderem) gehört zu haben; aber er erlangt nicht (virtuelle) Allwissenheit und er erlangt nicht Macht über die (zehn) Kräfte. Eine solche Person nennt man Einzelbuddha." (Puggalapaññatti I, 29)

56. Nibbatti tasmiṃ rukkhasmiṃ,
Jetuyyāne manorame;
dvārakoṭṭhakapassamhi,
pacchā bahi ahosi so.

56. Wegen dieser Tat wurde er im lieblichen Jetavana-Garten1 wiedergeboren, auf ebendiesem Baum, welcher später außerhalb an einer Seite des Tores stand.

Kommentar:

1 Jetavana-Garten: siehe oben zu Vers 44.

57. Devātidevo devassa,
tassa vuddhiñ ca passiya;
idaṃ ṭhānahitatthañ ca,
taṃ sarukkhaṃ idhānayi.

57. Weil Gott aller Götter1 darin einen Vorteil für diesen Gott sah, brachte er diesen Gott samt Baum hierher zum Heil dieses Landes [Lankā].

Kommentar:

1 ein einfacher Baumgott wäre ja nicht in der Lage zu einem solchen Baumtransport, deswegen ist der Obergott der eigentlich Tätige.

58. Saṅgāmamajjhe ākāse,
nisinno tattha nāyako;
tamaṃ tamonudo tesaṃ,
nāgānaṃ hiṃsanaṃa akā.

a Geiger: bhiṃsanaṃ

58. Der Führer saß in der Luft inmitten des Schlachtfelds und der Vertreiber der Dunkelheit schuf über diesen Nāga fürchterliche Dunkelheit.

59. Assāsento bhayaṭṭe te,
ālokaṃ paviddhaṃsayi;
te disvā sugataṃ tuṭṭhā,
pāde vandiṃsu satthuno.

59. Dann befreite er die furchtbar Erschreckten von ihrer Beklemmung und ließ wieder Licht werden. Als die Nāga den Vollendeten sahen, verehrten sie zufrieden die Füße des Lehrers.

60. Tesaṃ dhammam adesesi,
sāmaggikaraṇaṃ jino;
ubho pi te patītā taṃ,
pallaṅkaṃ munino aduṃ.

60. Der Eroberer verkündete ihnen die Eintracht schaffende Lehre. Die beiden [verfeindeten Nāga] gaben den Thron freudig dem Weisen [Buddha].


Abb.: Buddha verkündet den Nāga die Eintracht schaffende Lehre
[Bildquelle: http://www.lacnet.org/suntimes/990328/plus6.html#6LABEL1. -- Zugriff am 2001-05-07]

61. Satthā bhūmigato tattha,
pasīditvānaa āsane;
tehi dibbannapānehi,
nāgarājehi tappito.

a Geiger: nisīditvāna

61. Der Lehrer begab sich hinab auf die Erde, setzte sich auf einen Sitz und wurde von den Nāgakönigen mit himmlischer Speise und Trank verwöhnt.

62. Te jalaṭṭhe talaṭṭhe ca,
bhujage ’sītikoṭiyo;
saraṇesu ca sīlesu,
patiṭṭhāpesi nāyako.

62. Dann festigte der Führer 80 Koti1 Seeschlangen und Landschlangen [d.h. Nāga] in den Zufluchten2 und Übungspunkten2 der Sittlichkeit.

Kommentar:

1  1 Koti = 100.000, d.h. insgesamt 8 Millionen

2 Zufluchten und Übungspunkte der Sittlichkeit: siehe oben zu Vers 32

63. Mahodarassa nāgassa,
mātulo Maṇiakkhiko;
Kalyāṇiyaṃ nāgarājā,
yuddhaṃ kātuṃ tahiṃ gato.

63. Maniakkhika, der Nāgakönig in Kalyānī1, der Mutterbruder des Nāga Mahodara, war nach Nāgadīpa gekommen, um am Kampf teilzunehmen.

Kommentar:

1 Kalyānī: Kelaniya, s. unten

64. Buddhagāmamhi paṭhame,
sutvā saddhammadesanaṃ;
ṭhito saraṇasīlesu,
tatthā’yāci tathāgataṃ.

64. Er hatte bei Buddhas erstem Besuch in Lankā die Verkündigung der guten Lehre gehört und war seither gefestigt in den Zufluchten1 und Übungspunkten1 der Sittlichkeit. Nun bat er den zur Wahrheit Gelangten:

Kommentar:

1 Zufluchten und Übungspunkte der Sittlichkeit: siehe oben zu Vers 32

65. Mahatī anukampā no,
katā nātha tayā ayaṃ;
tavānāgamane sabbe,
mayaṃ bhasmībhavāmahe.

65. "Herr, Groß ist die Barmherzigkeit, die du uns erwiesen hast. Wärest du nicht gekommen, wären wir alle zu Asche geworden.

66. Anukampā mahīa pi te,
visuṃ hotu mahodaya;
punarāgamanenettha,
vāsabhūmiṃ mamāmama.

a Geiger: mayi

66. Barmherziger, zeige deine Barmherzigkeit speziell mir gegenüber, indem du wieder hierher kommst kommst in meine Heimat, der du kein mein kennst".

67. Adhivāsayitvā bhagavā,
tuṇhibhāven' idhāgamaṃ;
patiṭṭhāpesia tattheva,
rājāyatanacetiyaṃ.

a Geiger: patiṭṭhāpayi

67. Der Ehrwürdige sagte durch Schweigen zu, hierher zu kommen. Er ließ an jenem Ort den Königreichbaumcetiya errichten.


Abb.: Nāgadīpa-Stūpa in Nayinativu
[Bildquelle: Dennis Sylvester Hurd. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/dennissylvesterhurd/50827323/in/set-804644/. -- Creative Commons Lizenz. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-26]

68. Tañ capi rājāyatanaṃ,
pallañkañ ca mahārahaṃ;
appesi nāgarājūnaṃ,
lokanātho namassituṃ.

68. Der Herr der Welten übergab den Nāgakönigen den Königreichbaum und den wertvollen Thron zur Verehrung.

69. Paribhogacetiyaṃ mayhaṃ,
nāgarājā namassatha;
taṃ bhavissati vo tātā,
hitāya ca sukhāya ca.

69.  "Nāgakönige, verehrt diesen Cetiya mit von mir benutzten1 Reliquien und es wird euch zu Glück und Heil gereichen."

Kommentar:

1 paribhogacetiya

Man unterscheidet:

Die beiden letzten Formen von cetiya sind nicht primär Reliquienschreine, sondern Monumente.

70. Iccevamādiṃ sugato,
 nāgānaṃ anusāsanaṃ;
katvā Jetavanaṃ eva,
gato lokānukampakoa.

a Geiger: katvā gato Jetavanaṃ, sabbalokānukampako

70. Nachdem der Vollendete so und anders die Nāga belehrt hatte, ging der mit allen Welten Barmherzige nach Jetavana.


Paralleltext im Dīpavaṃsa (II, 1 - 51):

1. Arahaṃ pana sambuddho Kosalānaṃ puruttamaṃ,
upanissāya vihāsī Sudattārāme sirīghano.
2 Tasmiṃ Jetavane buddho dhammarājā pabhaṅkaro,
sabbalokam avekkhanto Tambapaṇṇivar' addasa.
3 Atikkante pañcavassamhi Tambapaṇṇitalaṃ agā,
avaruddhake vinodetvā suññaṃ dīpaṃ akā sayaṃ.
4 Uragā ajja dīpamhi pabbateyyā samuṭṭhitā,
ubhoviyūḷhasaṅgāmaṃ yuddhaṃ kariṃsu dāruṇaṃ.
5 Sabbe mahiddhikā nāgā sabbe ghoravisā ahū,
sabbeva kibbisā caṇḍā madamānā avassitā.
6 Khippakāpi mahātejā paduṭṭhā kakkhalā kharā,
ujjhānasaññī sukopā uragā vilarathikā.
7 Mahodaro mahātejo Cūḷodaro ca tejaso,
ubho pi balasampannā ubho pi vaṇṇātisayā.
8 Na passati koci samaṃ samuttari
Mahodaro mānamattena tejasā,
dīpaṃ vināsesi saselakānanaṃ
ghātemi sabbe paṭipakkhapannage.
9 Cūḷodaro gajjati mānanissito
āgacchantu nāgasahassakoṭiyo,
hanāmi sabbe raṇamajjham āgate
thalaṃ karomi satayojanaṃ dīpaṃ.
10 Padūsayanti visavegadussahā
sampajjalanti uragā mahiddhikā,
rosadhammā bhujagindamucchitā
ussahanti raṇasattu maddituṃ.
11 Disvāna buddho uragindakuppanaṃ
dīpaṃ vinassanti nivattahetukaṃ,
lokassa cārī sugato bahuṃ hitaṃ
vicintayi aggasukhaṃ sadevake.
12 Sace na gaccheyyaṃ na pannagā sukhī
dīpaṃ vināsaṃ na ca sādhu 'nāgate,
nāge anukampamāno sukhatthiko
gacchām' ahaṃ dīpavuddhiṃ samicchituṃ.
13 Laṅkādīpe guṇaṃ disvā pubbe yakkhavinoditaṃ,
Mama sādhukataṃ dīpaṃ mā vināsentu pannagā.
14 Idaṃ vatvāna sambuddho uṭṭhahitvāna āsanā,
gandhakuṭito nikkhamma dvāre aṭṭhāsi cakkhumā
15 Yāvatā Jetavane ca ārāme vanadevatā,
Sabbe va upaṭṭhahiṃsu mayaṃ gacchāma cakkhuma.
16 Alaṃ sabbe pi tiṭṭhantu Samiddhi yeko 'vagacchatu,
avagaccha saharukkho ca dhārayitvāna piṭṭhito
17 Buddhassa vacanaṃ sutvā Samiddhi sumano ahū,
samūlaṃ rukkham ādāya saha gacchi tathāgataṃ
18 Naruttamaṃ taṃ sambuddhaṃ devarājā mahiddhiko,
chāyaṃ katvāna dhāresi buddhaseṭṭhassa piṭṭhito.
19 Yattha nāgānaṃ saṅgāmaṃ tatha gantvā naruttamo,
ubhonāgavaramajjhe ṭhito satthānukampako.
20 Nabhe gantvāna sambuddho ubhonāgānam upari,
tibbandhakāratamaṃ ghoraṃ akāsi lokanāyako.
21 Andhaṃ tamaṃ tadā hoti kesaramayaiddhiyā,
andhakārena onaddho sihitā yarukkho ahū
22 Aññamaññaṃ na passanti tasitā nāgā bhayaṭṭitā,
jitam pi na passanti kuto saṅgāma kārituṃ.
23 Sabbe saṅgāmaṃ bhinditvā pamuñcitvāna āvudhaṃ,
Namassamā sambuddhaṃ sabbe ṭhitā katañjalī
24 Salomahaṭṭhe ñatvāna disvā nāge bhayaṭṭite,
mettacittena pharitvāna uṇharaṃsiṃ pamuñcayi.
25 Āloko 'va mahā āsī abbhuto lomahaṃsano,
sabbe passanti sambuddhaṃ nabhe cadaṃ va nimmalaṃ.
26 Chahi vaṇṇehi upeto jalanto nabhakantare,
dasa disā virocanto ṭhito nāge abhāsatha.
27 Kimatthiyaṃ mahārāja nāgānaṃ vivādo ahū,
tumheva anukampāya javāgacchiṃ tato ahaṃ
28 Ayaṃ Cūḷodaro nāgo ayaṃ nāgo Mahodaro,
mātulo bhāgineyyo ca vivadanto dhanatthiko.
29 Anuddayaṃ caṇḍanāgānaṃ sambuddho ajjhabhāsatha,
appo hutvā mahā hoti kodho bālassa āgamo.
30 Kim uddisvā bahū nāgā mahādukkhaṃ nigacchatha,
imaṃ parittaṃ pallaṅkaṃ mā tumhe nāsayissatha.
31 Aññamaññam vināsetha akataṃ jīvitakkhayaṃ,
saṃvejesi tadā nāge nirayadukkhena cakkhumā.
32 Manussayoniṃ dibbaṃ ca nibbānaṃ ca pakittayi,
pakāsayantaṃ saddhammaṃ sambuddhaṃ dīpaduttamaṃ.
33 Sabbe nāgā nipatitvā khamāpesuṃ tathāgataṃ,
sabbe nāgā samāgantvā samaggā hutvāna pannagā.
34 Upesuṃ saraṇaṃ sabbe asīti pāṇakoṭiyo,
sabbe nāgā vinassāma imaṃ pallaṅkahetukaṃ.
35 Ādāya pallaṅkavaraṃ ubho nāgā samatthikā,
paṭigaṇhatha pallaṅkhaṃ anukampāya cakkhuma
36 Adhivāsesi sambuddho tuṇhībhāvena cakkhumā,
adhivāsanaṃ viditvāna tuṭṭhā mahoragā ubho.
37 Nisīdatu 'maṃ sugato pallaṅkaṃ veluriyamayaṃ,
pabhassaraṃ jātivantaṃ nāgānaṃ abhipatthitaṃ.
38 Patiṭṭhapiṃsu pallaṅkaṃ nāgā dīpānam antare,
nisīdi tatha pallaṅke dhammarājā pabhaṅkaro.
39 Pasādetvāna sambuddhaṃ asīti nāgakoṭiyo,
tattha nāgā parivisuṃ annapāṇañ ca bhojanaṃ.
40 Onītapattapāṇiṃ taṃ asīti nāgakoṭiyo,
parivāretvā nisīdiṃsu buddhaseṭṭhassa santike
41 Kalyāṇike gaṅgāmukhe nāgo ahū saputtako,
mahānāgaparivāro nāmenāpi Maṇiakkhiko.
42 Saddho saraṇasampanno sammādiṭṭhi ca sīlavā,
nāgasamāgamaṃ gantvā bhiyyo abhipasīdati.
43 Disvā buddhabalaṃ nāgo anukampaṃ phaṇimayaṃ,
abhivādetvā nisīdi āyācesi tathāgataṃ
44 Imaṃ dīpānukampāya paṭhamaṃ yakkhavinoditaṃ,
idaṃ nāgānaṃ 'nuggahaṃ dutiyaṃ dīpānukampanaṃ.
45 Puna pi bhagavā imaṃ anukampaṃ mahāmuni,
ahaṃ c' upaṭṭhahissāmi veyyāvaccaṃ karom' ahaṃ.
46 Nāgassa bhāsitaṃ sutvā buddho sattānukampako,
Laṅkādīpahitatthāya adhivāsesi sugato.
47 Paribhuñjitvā pallaṅkaṃ vuṭṭhahitvā pabhaṅkaro,
divāvihāraṃ akāsi tattha dīpantare muni
48 Dīpantare dīpan
' aggo divasaṃ vītināmayi,
samāpatti samāpajji brahmavihārena cakkhumā.
49 Sāyaṇhakālasamaye nāge āmantayī jino,
ndh' eva hotu pallaṅko khīrapālo idhāgacchatu.
nāgā sabbe imaṃ rukkhaṃ pallaṅkaṃ ca namassatha.
50 Idaṃ vatvāna sambuddho anusāsetvāna pannage,
paribhogacetiyaṃ datvā puna Jetavanaṃ gato.

Nāgadamanaṃ niṭṭhitaṃ.

 

"1. Again, the holy, glorious Sambuddha (once) dwelt near the most excellent capital of Kosala, in the garden of Sudatta (Anāthapindika). 2. In this Jetavana garden Buddha, the light-giving king of the Truth, looking all over the world, saw beautiful Tambapanni. 3. When five years had elapsed (after he had attained Buddhahood), he went to the country of Tambapanni. By dispelling the Avaruddhaka (demons) he (once) himself had made the island empty. 4. (But) now the mountain serpents and the sea serpents fought a battle in the island, having arranged their arrays on both sides, an awful struggle. 5. All those Nāgas possessed great (magical) powers, all were frightfully venomous, all were wicked and violent, furious and filled with desire. 6. The Serpents were quick and excessively powerful, corrupt, cruel, and harsh, hasty, given to anger, longing for destruction (?). 7. Powerful Mahodara and resplendent Culodara, both were valiant, both had an exceedingly brilliant appearance. 8. No one saw a way how peaceably to compose that struggle (?). Mahodara whose fierceness was furiously excited by pride, was destroying the island with its mountains and its forests: „I will kill all hostile serpents." 9. Culodara, filled with pride, roared: „May thousand kotis of Nāgas approach; I will slay all them who dare to enter the battle; I will change the island, all its hundred yojanas, into one desert." 10. The Serpents whose venomous fury could not be restrained, who possessed high (magical) powers, raged and sent forth flames (sent forth smoke and flames?); the Serpent kings, infatuated with anger, incited them to destroy the foes (who opposed them) in the battle.

11. Buddha, the blessed wanderer through the world, when he perceived the anger of the Serpent kings, (and saw) that the island was being destroyed, thought, in order to prevent this, many kind thoughts, for the sake of the highest bliss of (men) and gods. 12. (He thus reflected:) „If I do not go (to Lankā), the Serpents will not become happy; the island will be destroyed, and there will be no welfare in future time. 13. Out of compassion for the Nāgas, for the sake of happiness (of men) I shall go there; may the happiness of the island prosper (?). 14. I perceive the excellent qualities of Lankādīpa; the Serpents shall not destroy the island from which I formerly have driven out the Yakkhas, and to which I have done good." 15. Speaking thus the Sambuddha rose from his seat; he who possessed the gift of (supernatural) vision, left the Gandhakuti, and stood in the door (of the Jetavana garden). 16. All the gods who resided in the trees of the Jetavana garden, offered their services to him: „Let us go (with thee, o Sage who art) possessed of (supernatural) vision." 17. (Buddha replied:) „Nay, remain ye all, Samiddhi alone may go (with me)." (Samiddhi) went, taking up the tree (where his residence was,) and holding it from behind (over Buddha's head). 18. Samiddhi, when he heard what Buddha had said, was delighted; he took up the tree, roots and all, and followed the Tathāgata. 19. The highly powerful king of gods gave shade to the Sambuddha, the highest among men, and held (the tree) from behind over the most excellent Buddha. 20. The highest of men went to the place where the Nāgas fought their battle; the merciful Teacher (there) stood in the middle of both noble Nāgas. 21. Going through the air over the heads of both Nāgas, the Sambuddha, the chief of the world, produced a deep, terrifying darkness. 22. There arose a thick darkness, caused by the great (magical) power of the lion (among men); he was covered and veiled (?) by the darkness, and the tree too (?). 23. The frightened, terrifyed Nāgas did not see each other, nor did they see the Jina (?), (or) to what side they should direct their attacks. 24. They all forsook the battle, threw down their weapons, and stood all with clasped hands, paying reverence to the Sambuddha. 25. When (Buddha) perceived that they were struck with horror, when, he saw that the Nāgas were terrifyed, he sent forth his thoughts of kindness towards them, and emitted a warm ray of light. 26. A great sight it was, astonishing and terrifying; they all saw the Sambuddha like the bright moon in the sky. 27. Standing there, resplendent with all the six colours, shining in the air, illuminating the ten regions (of the world), he thus addressed the Nāgas: 28. „From what cause, o great king, did this contention among the Nāgas arise? Out of compassion towards yourself I have come speedily hither." 29. (They replied:) „This Nāga Culodara and that Nāga Mahodara, the maternal uncle and the nephew, are quarrelling with each other, desirous of treasure." 30. The Sambuddha addressed a speech full of compassion to the savage Nāgas: „ Anger which arises in the mind of the fool, begins small, and grows great. 31. For what reason do you undergo, all these many Nāgas, great suffering? Destroy that small throne, but do not destroy each other. Destroying one the other you are going to cause an unheard of destruction of life." 32. Then he who possessed the gift of (supernatural) vision, agitated the Nāgas by (the description of) the sufferings in hell; he unfolded to them the (laws of) birth in the worlds of men and devas, and the nature of Nibbāna. 33. As the Sambuddha, the highest of men, thus preached the true doctrine, all the Nāgas, casting themselves down, propitiated the Tathāgata. 34. All the Nagas (then) came together, the Serpents reconciled themselves to each other, and all took their refuge (in Buddha), eighty kotis of living beings. 35. (Thus they spoke:) „We might perish, all we Nāgas, on account of this throne." 36. The two Nāga (kings), for the sake of restoring peace, took that most excellent throne (and thus spoke to Buddha:) „Accept this throne out of compassion, (o Sage who art) gifted with (supernatural) vision." 37. The Sambuddha who possessed the gift of (supernatural) vision, accepted it by remaining silent. When they understood that he had accepted it, the two great Serpents were delighted. 38. (They thus addressed Buddha:) „May the blessed One sit down on this splendid, noble Veluriya throne which the Nāgas were longing for." 39. The Nāgas placed that throne in the midst of the two islands. There, on that throne, the light-giving king of the Truth sat down. 40. When those eighty kotis of Nāgas had propitiated the Sambuddha, the Nāgas there served to him a meal, food and drink. 41. When he had removed his hands from the bowl, the eighty kotis of Nāgas, surrounding him, sat down near the supreme Buddha."

42. At the mouth of the Kalyāni river there lived a Nāga together with his children and with a great retinue of Nagas; his name was Maniakkhika. 43. (He was) full of faith, and had taken his refuge (in Buddha), a true and righteous' believer. When he came to that assembly of Nāgas, his faith still increased. 44. When this Naga perceived the Buddha's power, his compassion, and the fear of the Serpents (?), he bowed to him, sat down, and thus entreated the Tathāgata: 45. „Out of compassion to this island thou hast first dispelled the Yakkhas; this kindness towards the Nāgas is thy second act of compassion towards the Island. 46. May the holy, great Sage show his compassion still another time; I shall attend and do service to thee." 47. Having heard what the Nāga said, Buddha, full of compassion for created beings, the blessed One, accepted (his invitation,) for showing kindness to Lankādīpa. 48. Having sat on the throne, the light-giver arose; the Sage then rested during the midday time in the interior of the island. 49. In the interior of the island the supreme light spent the day; he who possessed the gift of (supernatural) vision, entered upon the Brahma-vihāra meditation. 50. At evening time the Jina thus spoke to the Nāgas: „Let the throne remain there; may the Khirapala tree1) station itself here. Worship, o Nāgas, all of you this tree and the throne." 51. Having spoken thus, and preached to the Serpents, and given them that sacred object used by (himself), the Sambuddha returned to the Jetavana.

Here ends the conquering of the Nāgas.

1) This is tbe tree which the god Samiddhi bad taken to the island; see v. 17 et sq."

[Quelle: Dipavamsa : an ancient historical record / ed. and translated by Hermann Oldenberg [1854 - 1920]. -- 1879. -- S. 124 - 127.]


ti Nāgadīpāgamanaṃ [niṭṭhitaṃ.]

Der Bericht von Buddhas Besuch in Nāgadīpa ist beendet.


6. Buddhas Besuch in Kalyānī


Paralleltext im Dīpavaṃsa (II, 52 - 69):

51 Aparampi aṭṭhame vasse nāgarājā Maṇikkhiko,
nimantayi mahāvīraṃ pañcabhikkhusate saha.
52 Parivāretvāna sambuddhaṃ vasibhūtā mahiddhikā,
uppatitvā Jetavane kamamāno nabhe muni.
53 Laṅkādīpaṃ anuppatto gaṅgaṃ Kalyāṇisammukhaṃ,
sabbe ratanamaṇḍapaṃ uragā katvā mahātale.
nānāraṅgehi vatthehi dibbadussehi chādayuṃ
54 Nānāratanalaṅkārā nānāphullavicittakā,
nānāraṅgadhajā nekā maṇḍapaṃ nānālaṅkataṃ.
55 Sabbasanthataṃ satharitvā paññāpetvāna āsanaṃ,
buddhapamukhasaṅghassa pavesetvā nisīdiṃsu.
56Nisīditvāna sambuddho pañcahibhikkhusate saha,
samāpatti samāpajji mettaṃ sabbadisaṃ phari.
57 Sattakkhattuṃ samāpajji buddho jhānaṃ sasāvako,
tasmiṃ ṭhāne mahāthūpo patiṭṭhasi cetiyaṃ uttamaṃ.
58 Mahādānaṃ pavattesi nāgarājā Maṇikkhiko,
paṭiggahetvā sambuddho nāgadānaṃ sasāvako.
59 Bhutvāna anumoditvā nabh' uggacchi sasāvako,
orohitvā nabhe buddho ṭhāne Dīghavāpicetiye
60 Samāpajji samāpattiṃ jhānaṃ lokānukampako,
vuṭṭhahitvā samāpatti tamhi ṭhāne pabhaṅkaro.
61 Vehāsayaṃ kamamāno dhammarājā sasāvako,
Mahāmeghavane tattha bodhiṭṭhānaṃ upāgami.
62 Purimā tīṇi mahābodhi patiṭṭhiṃsu mahītale,
taṃ ṭhānaṃ upagantvāna tattha jhānaṃ samāppayi.
63 Tisso bodhi imaṃ ṭhāne tayo buddhāna sāsane,
Mamaṃ ca bodhi idh' eva patiṭṭhissat' anāgate.
64 Sasāvako samāpatti vuṭṭhahitvā naruttamo,
zattha Meghavanārammaṃ agamāsi narāsabho.
65 Tatthāpi so samāpattiṃ samāpajji sasāvako,
vuṭṭhahitvā samāpatti byākarosi pabhaṅkaro
66 Imaṃ padesaṃ paṭhamaṃ Kakusandho lokanāyako,
imaṃ pallaṅkaṭhānamhi nisīditvā paṭiggahi.
67 Imaṃ padesaṃ dutiyaṃ Konāgamano narāsabho,
imaṃ pallaṅkaṭhānamhi nisīditvā paṭiggahī.
68 Imaṃ padesaṃ tatiyaṃ Kassapo lokanāyako,
imaṃ pallaṅkaṭhānamhi nisīditvā paṭiggahi.
69 Ahaṃ Gotamasambuddho Sakyaputto narāsabho,
imaṃ pallaṅkaṭhānamhi nisīditvā samappito.
"52. Again, in the eighth year (after Buddha had reached Sambodhi), the Nāga king Maniakkhika invited the great hero together with five hundred Bhikkhus. 53. (These Bhikkhus) whose senses were subdued, who possessed the high (magical) powers, surrounded the Sambuddha; the Sage rose up into the air in the Jetavana, and proceeding through the air, he came to Lankā, to the mouth of the Kalyāni river. 54. All the Serpents constructed a pavilion of precious stones on the ground, and covered it with garments of different colours, with divine clothes. 55. (There were) ornaments of various precious stones, various blossoms of many descriptions, many flags of various colours; the pavilion was adorned in many ways. 56. They spread (cloth over the) entire (floor) and prepared seats; (then) they introduced the Fraternity with Buddha at its head, and invited them to sit down. 57. Sitting down together with five hundred Bhikkhus, the Sambuddha entered upon ecstatic meditations; he diffused (the rays of) his kindness to all quarters (of the horizon). 58. Seven times Buddha together with his pupils attained mystical trance; at that place (subsequently) the Mahā-thāpa was built, the most excellent Cetiya. 59. The Nāga king Maniakkhika distributed a great donation (to the Bhikkhus). Having accepted the donation of that Nāga, having taken food, and gladdened (the Nāgas by preaching to them,) the Sambuddha together with his pupils rose up into the air. 60. At the place of the Dīghavāpi Cetiya, Buddha, he who was full of compassion to the world, descended from the air and again entered upon mystical meditation. 61. Having arisen from the trance at that place, the light-giving king of the Truth together with his pupils, wandering through the air, then proceeded to the place where the Bo tree was to be stationed in the Mahāmeghavana garden. 62. The Bo trees of three former Buddhas (there also) had been established on the ground; to that place he went, and there he entered upon meditation. 63. (He thus prophesied:) „Three Bo trees (have stood) at this place, at (the time of) the teaching of three Buddhas; my Bo tree also will stand on this very spot in future time." 64. The highest being, the chief of men, having arisen from that meditation together with his pupils, went to the delightful Meghavana garden. 65. There also he plunged himself in meditation together with his pupils. Having arisen from that meditation, the light-giver proclaimed: 66. „This place first Kakusandha, the chief of the world, has accepted, sitting down on this spot where a throne has been erected. 67. This place secondly Konāgamana, the chief of men, has .... 68. This place thirdly Kassapa, the chief of the world, has ... 69. Myself, Sambuddha Gotama, the descendant of the Sākya tribe, the chief of men, have attained (trance), seated on this spot, where a throne is to be erected.""

[Quelle: Dipavamsa : an ancient historical record / ed. and translated by Hermann Oldenberg [1854 - 1920]. -- 1879. -- S. 128f.]


6.1. In Kalyānī (Kelaniya)


Kalyāṇāgamanaṃ

Buddhas Besuch in Kelaniya



Abb.: Lage von Kelaniya (©MS Encarta)

71. Tato so tatiye vasse,
nāgindo Maṇiakkhiko;
upasaṅkammaa sambuddhaṃ,
satasaṅghaṃb nimantayi.

a Geiger: upasaṅkammitvā
b Geiger: sahasaṅghaṃ

71. Im dritten Jahr nach diesen Ereignissen1 ging der Nāgafürst2 Maniakkhiko zum Sambuddha und lud ihn samt den Mönchen ein.

Kommentar:

1 d.h. nach der Theravādachronologie im Jahre 581 v. Chr.

2 Nāgafürst: zu den Nāga siehe oben zu Vers 45/46

72. Bodhito aṭṭhame vasse,
vasaṃ Jetavane jino;
nātho pañcahi bhikkhūnaṃ,
satehi parivārito.
73. Dutiye divase bhatta-
kāle ārocite jino;
ramme Vesākhamāsamhi,
puṇṇamāyaṃ munissaro.
74. Tattheva pārupitvāna,
saṅghāṭiṃ pattam ādiya;
āgā Kalyāṇidesaṃ taṃ,
maṇiakkhinivesanaṃa.

a Geiger: maṇiakkhikanivesanaṃ

72./73./74.  Am nächsten Tag, dem Vollmondtag des lieblichen Monats Vesākha1 , im achten Jahr seit dem Erwachen, als die Essenszeit angekündigt wurde, hat der Eroberer, der damals in Jetavana2 weilte, sich mit der Samghāti3 gekleidet und ist mit dem Almosentopf, umgeben von 500 Mönchen, ins Kalyānīland4 gegangen, den Wohnort von Manakkhika.

Kommentar:

1 Vesākha: 2. Monat des Jahres, Monat des großen Erwachens Buddhas, siehe oben zu Vers 12.

2 Jetavana:siehe oben zu Vers 44

3 Saṃghāti: das oberste Tuch des Dreigewandes (ticīvara n.(, als Mantel gebraucht. Zum Dreigewand gehören noch Untergewand (antaravāsaka) und Obergewand (uttarāsaṅga)


Abb.: antaravāsaka


Abb.: uttarāsaṅga


Abb.: saṃghāti

[Quelle der Abbildungen: Kunst in Thailand / Jean Boisselier; Jean-Michel Beurdeley. Photos: Hans Hinz. -- Stuttgart, Berlin, Köln, Mainz : Kohlhammer, 1974. -- 271 S. : Ill.  ; 30 cm. -- Originaltitel: La sculpture en Thaïlande (1974). -- ISBN 3-17-001526-5. -- S. 198]

4 Kalyānīland:

"Kelaniya; Provinz: Western; Höhe: 5 m ü.d.M.

Auto: Von Colombo in Richtung Kandy (12 km). Omnibus: Gute und regelmäßige Verbindungen von Colombo.

Kelaniya, in einer Schleife des Kelani Ganga und nur wenige Kilometer von der westlichen Stadtgrenze Colombos entfemt, wirkt wie eine stille Gartenstadt. Das ändert sich zumindest einmal im Jahr, wenn Ende Januar/Anfang Februar der erste Vollmond des neuen Jahres gefeiert wird und Tausende von Pilgern in die Stadt strömen. Der Tempel gilt als eine der heiligsten Stätten des Buddhismus auf Sri Lanka und ist außerdem Sitz einer bedeutenden buddhistischen Universität." [Vidyalankara University, gegründet 1958]

[Quelle: Sri Lanka. -- Ostfildern : Baedeker, ©1999. -- (Baedeker Allianz Reiseführer). -- ISBN 3895254371. -- S. 185. -- {Wenn Sie HIER klicken, können Sie dieses Buch  bei amazon.de bestellen}]

75. Kalyāṇicetiyaṭhāne,
kate ratanamaṇḍape;
mahārahamhi pallaṅke,
sahasaṅghen' upāvisi.

75. Zusammen mit den Mönchen betrat er einen Pavillon aus Edelsteinen, der dort errichtet worden war, wo heute der Kalyānīcetiya1 steht, und nahm Platz auf einem wertvollen Thron. 

Kommentar:

1 Kalyānīcetiya:


Abb.: Kelaniya Stūpa
[Bildquelle: http://www.lacnet.org/suntimes/990131/plus7.html. -- Zugriff am 2001-05-07]

76. Dibbehi khajjabhojjehi,
sagaṇo sagaṇaṃ jinaṃ;
nāgarājā dhammarājaṃ,
santappesi sumānaso.

76. Heiter verwöhnte der Nāgakönig zusammen mit seinem Gefolge den König der Lehre, den Eroberer, und sein Gefolge mit himmlischen harten und weichen Speisen.

77. Tattha dhammaṃ desayitvā,
satthā lokanukampako;

77. Der Lehrer, der gegenüber den Welten Barmherzige, verkündete bei dieser Gelegenheit die Lehre. 


6.2. Auf dem Sumanakūṭa (Adam's Peak)



Abb.: Lage des Sumanakūta = Adams Peak
(©MS Encarta)

Vgl.

Haeckel, Ernst <1834 - 1919>: Der Adams-Pik auf Ceylon. -- In: Deutsche Rundschau. -- 1883-10. -- In: Anhang A: Der Adams-Pik auf Ceylon / von Ernst Haeckel (1883). -- Fassung vom 2006-04-03. -- URL: http://www.payer.de/mahavamsa/chronik01.htm

uggantvā Sumane kūṭea,
padaṃ dassesi nāyako.

a Geiger: Sumanakūṭe

77. Dann ging der Führer auf den Sumanakūṭa1 (Adams Peak) und machte dort seinen Fußabdruck sichtbar.

Kommentar:

1 Sumanakūṭa: Adams Peak


Abb.: Adam's Peak


Abb.: Buddhas Fußabdruck auf dem Adam's Peak

[Bildquelle: http://www.sacredsites.com/final40/123.html. -- Zugriff am 2001-05-09]


Abb.: Ausblick vom Adam' Peak
[Bildquelle: Wikipedia]


Abb.: Pilgerpfad zum Gipfel
[Bildquelle: Wikipedia]

"Adam's Peak (Sri Pada): Für die frühen arabischen Seefahrer war er der «höchste der Berge der Welt», der Franzose Sonnerat beschrieb ihn 1782 als den «höchsten Berg Asiens», und 1807 noch hielt der Brite Cordiner ihn für den «höchsten Berg der Insel». Gemeint war jeweils der Adam's Peak, von dem man heute weiß, dass er mit 2.243 m lediglich der vierthöchste Berg Sri Lankas ist. Im Laufe der Zeit ist er -- mit zunehmender geographischer Kenntnis -- erheblich geschrumpft.

Nicht abgenommen hat jedoch seine spirituelle Größe. 

Wegen eines überdimensionalen Fußabdruckes, den Buddha bei seinem letzten Besuch auf Sri Lanka auf dem Gipfel hinterlassen haben soll, wird er von den Buddhisten verehrt. ...

Aber auch die anderen Religionsgemeinschaften vereinnahmen den Fußabdruck für sich: 

Für die Shiva-Anhänger unter den Hindus stammt er von Shiva, für die anderen Hindus vorn Gott Saman, dem Schutzpatron des Berges. 

Die Christen wiederum sehen darin abwechselnd den Fußabdruck des Heiligen Thomas oder den von Adam, an den auch die Moslems glauben. Nach einer moslemischen Oberlieferung ließ Gott Adam und Eva nah der Vertreibung aus dem Paradies aus Mitleid auf dem Adams Peak leben, da Sri Lanka der Platz auf Erden war, der dem Paradies am nächsten kam! Der Fußabdruck entstand demnach dadurch, dass Adam zur Strafe auf einem einzigen Bein stehen musste, was einen tiefen Abdruck hinterließ.

Der besagte Fußabdruck ist gigantisch groß, ca. 160 x 75 cm. Einer volkstümlichen Überlieferung nach ist dieser jedoch nur eine vergrößerte Kopie über dem eigentlichen, echten Fußabdruck; dieser soll sich darunter befinden, eingeprägt in einem überdimensionalen Saphir.

Der Abdruck -- Sri Pada genannt, «Der edle Fuß» -- soll im 1. Jh.v.Chr. von König Valagama Bahu entdeckt worden sein, der von einem Hirsch dorthin geführt worden war. Wahrscheinlich fanden sich bald darauf die ersten Pilger dort ein, nach gesicherter Erkenntnis jedoch mindestens seit dem Ende des 10. Jh. König Vijaya Bahu I. (reg. 1071-1126) ließ an der Strecke Pilgerunterstände bauen, und Marco Polo berichtete im 13. Jh. von Eisenketten, die an der Strecke angebracht waren, um den Pilgern den Weg zu erleichtern. Im Jahre 1950 wurde der Weg elektrisch beleuchtet -- nachdem ein Minister den Gott Saman um Unterstützung in einem staatlichen Projekt gebeten hatte, mit dem Versprechen, bei dessen Gelingen sich durch die Beleuchtung der Pilger-Route zu revanchieren! Und so zieht der Berg bis heute jährlich Abertausende von Pilgern in seinen Bann, die nun wohlbeleuchtet zum Fußabdruck gelangen. ...

Es gibt zwei Wege mit unterschiedlichem Schwierigkeitsgrad zum Gipfel. Die meist begangene Anmarsch-Route ist heute die von Norden aus Richtung Hatton, die auch die leichtere ist. In früheren Jahrhunderten zählte nur der schwierige Weg von Süden her als «richtige» Pilgerreise, die leichte galt als spirituell weniger verdienstvoll. ...

Südroute: Die zweite, etwas in Vergessenheit geratene Route geht mehr an die Kondition, sie bringt dafür aber ungeahnten «Gewinn»: Nach Überzeugung der Bewohner der Gegend werden Frauen, die diese Strecke absolvieren, zur «Belohnung im nächsten Leben als Mann geboren!"

[Quelle: Krack, Rainer: Sri Lanka. -- 6., komplett aktualisierte Aufl. -- Bielefeld : Reise Know-how, 2000. -- (Reise Know-how). -- ISBN 3894168404. -- S. 340f. -- {Wenn Sie HIER klicken, können Sie dieses Buch  bei amazon.de bestellen}]

"Die Pilgersaison beginnt im Dezember und dauert bis zum Wesak Fest im Mai. Der Höhepunkt liegt im März. In der übrigen Jahreszeit liegt der Berg kahl da, der Regen macht den Aufstieg gefährlich. Jahr für Jahr gehen Zehntausende auf die Pilgerreise. Die meisten kommen des Nachts über eine von Lampen erleuchtete Treppe. Zahlreich sind die ambalanas (Pilgerrastplätze) und Erfrischungsstände, die den Aufstieg erleichtern. Wer bei Tagesanbruch oben ankommt, wird Zeuge eines fast übernatürlichen Schauspiels: der vergrößerte, dreieckige Schatten des Berges legt sich über das erwachende Land. Nur sehr selten kann man das »Schauspiel des Brocken« sehen -- den eigenen immens vergrößerten Schatten, wie er fern Nebelschwaden umkränzt von einem Regenbogen-Heiligenschein schwebt.

Die Pilger zum Adam's Peak befolgen während des Aufstiegs eine Reihe sehr eigenartiger traditioneller Regeln. Wer zum erstenmal auf den Berg geht, trägt große Turbane aus weißen Tüchern auf dem Kopf. An den beiden Hauptwegen muss man an der Indikatupana (»Platz der Nadel«) haltmachen und eine Nadel mit Faden in einen Strauch werfen; an dieser Stelle soll nämlich der Buddha innegehalten und ein Loch in seinem Umhang geflickt haben. Auf dem Gipfel läutet ununterbrochen eine Glocke, die als Zeichen der Beendigung einer Pilgerreise von einem alten Mann geschwungen wird. (Die aktuelle Reise kann nicht gemeint sein, denn die ist erst beendet, wenn man wieder zu Hause ist.) Es gilt als ausgesprochen unfein, unterwegs zu fragen, wie weit es noch ist; stattdessen sollte man die Pilger mit karunavai »Frieden« grüßen."

[Quelle: Sri Lanka / hrsg. von Hans Höfer ... -- München : Nelles, 1983. -- (Apa Guides). -- ISBN 3-88618-986-4. -- S. 176]

"Sakrale Gebäude auf dem Gipfel: Der dicht bebaute Gipfel bildet eine etwa 300 Quadratmeter große Plattform, auf der sich in einem kleinen überdachten Tempel die ummauerte Fußspur -- offenbar die eines linken Fußes -- befindet. Im 12. Jh. ließ König Parakrama Bahu I. auf dem Gipfel des Adam's Peak einen ersten, dem Hindugott Saman geweihten Tempel errichten. Später zogen buddhistische Mönche in den Tempel ein, bis der zum Brahmanismus übergetretene König Raja Sinha I. ihn im 16. Jh. wieder den Brahmanen übergab. Erst unter König Kirti Sri, der den Buddhismus auf Sri Lanka wieder in Erinnerung brachte, wurde er zwei Jahrhunderte später wieder von buddhistischen Mönchen bewohnt. Die brahmanischen Priester wurden jedoch nicht vertrieben; sie bauten einen kleineren Tempel, der heute noch erhalten ist. Die weiteren Gebäude sind nicht besonders bemerkenswert, sie stammen alle aus neuerer Zeit."

[Quelle: Sri Lanka. -- Ostfildern : Baedeker, ©1999. -- (Baedeker Allianz Reiseführer). -- ISBN 3895254371. -- S. 110. -- {Wenn Sie HIER klicken, können Sie dieses Buch  bei amazon.de bestellen}]


6.3. In Dīghavāpi




Abb.: Lage von Dīghavāpi (©CIA)

78. Tasmiṃ pabbatapādamhi,
sahasaṅgho yathāsukhaṃ;
divā vihāraṃ katvāna,
Dīghavāpim upāgami.

78. Am Fuße dieses Berges verbrachte er mit den Mönchen bequem den Tag und ging dann nach Dīghavāpi1.

Kommentar:

1 Dīghavāpi: im heutigen Bezirk Ampara, ca. 10 km östlich der Stadt Ampara, Provinz Uva.


Abb.: Lage von Dīghavāpi
(©Survey Departement Ceylon)

79. Tattha cetiyaṭhānamhi,
sasaṅgho va nisīdiya;
samādhiṃ appayī nātho,
ṭhānāgāravapattiyā.

79. Dort setzte sich der Herr mit den Mönchen an der Stelle des heutigen Cetiya1 nieder und versetzte sich in Versenkung, um dem Platz Würde zu geben.

Kommentar:

1 In den 1980er Jahren wurden bei Dīghavāpi die Ruinen eines alten buddhistischen Tempels freigelegt, der mit dem Dīghavāpi-Cetiya identifiziert wird.


6.4. In Anurādhapura



Abb.: Lage von Anurādhapura
(©MS Encarta)


Abb.: Lage der im Text genannten Orte in Anurādhapura

80. Tato vuṭṭhāya ṭhānamhā,
ṭhānāṭhānesu kovido;
Mahāmeghavanārāma-
ṭhānam āga mahāmuni.

80. Von jenem Platz ging der große Weise, kundig welche Plätze geeignet und welche ungeeignet sind2, zum Ort des jetzigen Mahāmeghavanārama2.

Kommentar:

1 d.h. die Geeignetheit Anurādhapuras ist durch Buddha selbst bestätigt.

2 Mahāmeghavanārama: in Anurādhapura, an der Stelle des späteren Mahāvihāra. Heute sind vom Mahāvihāra vor allem noch 1600 Pfeiler des Lohaprasāda erhalten.


Abb.: Anuradhapura, Reste des Lohaprasāda auf dem Gebiet des Mahāmeghavana

Anurādhapura wurde um 380 v. Chr. von Pandukabhaya gegründet und war dann bis 1070  Hauptstadt Sri Lankas, dann wurde die Hauptstadt wegen der anhaltenden Überfälle durch Tamilen nach Polonnaruwa verlegt.

"Anuradhapura; Provinz: Northem Central; Höhe: ca. 90 m ü.d.M.

Auto: Von Kandy auf der A 9 (138 km); von Puttalam auf der A 12 (ca. 70 km); von Polonnaruwa auf der A 11 (ca. 97 km).
Eisenbahn: Station an der Strecke von Colombo nach Jaffna.
Omnibus: Regelmäßige Verbindungen von den zuvor genannten Städten.

Anuradhapura, eine der ältesten und sehenswertesten Städte auf Sri Lanka, liegt nordöstlich von Colombo in der sog. dry zone, dem trockensten Gebiet der Insel. Die heutige Stadt Anuradhapura gliedert sich in den Ruinenteil und ein neues Zentrum, das erst in diesem Jahrhundert entstand. Hier leben heute ca. 50000 Einwohner. Beide Teile sind jedoch nur wenige Kilometer voneinander getrennt. ...

Anuradhapura, heute eine eindrucksvolle Ruinenstadt, war nicht weniger als 119 Königen in 13 Jahrhunderten -- wenn auch nicht immer ungestört -- Residenzstadt und eine der bedeutendsten Hauptstädte des singhalesischen Reiches. Hier entstanden die ersten Heiligtümer des Buddhismus, hier entwickelte sich ein Kunststil, der zu den klassischen Stilen zählt. Durchdrungen von der Idee des Buddhismus zeugen die Bauten vom hohen Selbstbewusstsein des jungen Reiches. Klöster und Königspalast waren Mittelpunkte der literarischen und religiösen Kultur.

Die Stadtplanung mutet nicht nur auf den ersten Blick modern an, allerdings entstand sie bereits ca. 500 Jahre v. Christus. Drei im 1. Jh. v. Chr. angelegte Wasserreservoirs (singhalesisch: wewa) und und ein ausgeklügeltes Kanalsystem sorgten für die Bewässerung des sehr trockenen Landes und für Trinkwasser in der Stadt, die zum Zeitpunkt ihrer größten Blüte mehrere Hunderttausend Einwohner gehabt haben muss.

Um das Jahr 380 v. Chr. wurde die Siedlung Anuradhagama (gama = Siedlung) von König Pandukabhaya [394 - 307 v. Chr.] zur Hauptstadt des singhalesischen Reiches erhoben. Er nannte sie Anuradhapura (pura = Stadt). Die eigentliche Geschichte der Stadt begann jedoch erst mit der Regierung von König Devanampiya Tissa (250-210 v. Chr.), der die von dem Mönch Mahinda verkündete Lehre des Buddhismus aufnahm und unterstützte. In diese Zeit fiel auch die erste rege Bautätigkeit; es entstanden jedoch vorzugsweise einfache Bauten für die Bevölkerung und den Regenten, während die Bauwerke zu Ehren Buddhas weitaus repräsentativer angelegt wurden. 

Im Jahre 993 gab es den ersten Bruch in der Entwicklung der Stadt, als sie durch die aus Südindien einfallenden Chola-Herrscher erobert wurde. Sie überfielen aber auch die nur knapp 100 km entfernte Stadt Polonnaruwa, die sie zu ihrer Residenz machten. Anuradhapura wurde in den folgenden Jahren von dort mitverwaltet. 1070 gelang es König Vijaya Bahu I. (dem früheren Fürsten von Ruhuna), von Polonnaruwa, das er bereits 15 Jahre zuvor zurückerobert hatte, auch Anuradhapura den Cholas zu entreißen. Da jedoch Polonnaruwa strategisch günstiger lag, beließ er es bei der Wiederinstandsetzung des größtenteils zerstörten Bewässerungssystems sowie einiger buddhistischer Heiligtümer, machte aber Polonnaruwa zu seiner neuen Hauptstadt.

Von Anuradhapura, das ab diesem Zeitpunkt in einen Dämmerschlaf versank und im Laufe der Jahrhunderte vom Dschungel überwachsen wurde, war bis zum Beginn des 19. Jh.s nur soviel bekannt, dass der britische Beamte Ralph Backhaus, der per Zufall hierherkam, von einer großartigen Ruinenstadt im Norden der Insel schwärmte. Der britische Archäologe H. C. P Bell fand um 1820 diese Berichte der Überprüfung wert und entdeckte die Stadt. Bis die ersten Ausgrabungsarbeiten begannen, dauerte es jedoch noch bis 1890.

Im Jahre 1980 stellte die UNESCO das Ruinenfeld von Anuradhapura unter ihren Schutz, seither werden die (längst noch nicht beendeten) Ausgrabungsarbeiten mit Finanzmitteln dieser UNO-Unterorganisation unterstützt.

Das Gelände der Ruinenstadt von Anuradhapura ist mit einer Fläche von etwa 50 kmī nicht nur sehr weitläufig, sondern auch recht unübersichtlich, da an vielen Stellen noch Ausgrabungen stattfinden."

[Quelle: Sri Lanka. -- Ostfildern : Baedeker, ©1999. -- (Baedeker Allianz Reiseführer). -- ISBN 3895254371. -- S. 113 - 115. -- {Wenn Sie HIER klicken, können Sie dieses Buch  bei amazon.de bestellen}]

81. Mahābodhiṭhitaṭhāne,
nisīditvā sasāvako;
samādhiṃ appayī nātho,
Mahāthūpaṭhite tathā.

81. Der Herr setzte sich mit den Jüngern an die Stelle, wo heute der Mahābodhi-Baum1 [in Anurādhapura] steht, und versetzte sich dort ebenfalls in Versenkung, ebenso an der Stelle, wo heute der Große Stūpa2 steht.

Komentar:

1 Mahābodhi-Baum in Anurādhapura:


Abb.: Bodhi-Baum, Anurādhapura

[Bildquelle: http://home.earthlink.net/~maitree/thesis/ap-3budd.htm. --
Zugriff am 2001-05-08] 


Abb.: Großer Stūpa (Ruvanavelisaya Dagoba),
davor Basawak Kulama Tank, Anurādhapura (©Corbis)

Der Mahabodhi-Baum in Anurādhapura stammt der Überlieferung nach von einem Zweig des Baumes in Bodh Gaya, unter dem Buddha die erlösende Einsicht gewonnen hatte. Sanghamittā, die Schwester des Missionars von Lankā, Mahinda, soll diesen Zweig um 230 v. Chr. nach Lankā gebracht haben. 1939 wurde der Baum von einem Christen -- wohl in Anlehnung an die Tat des Hl. Bonifatius -- mit einer Axt attackiert. Der Mutterbaum wurde in Indien um 600 n. Chr. von einem "toleranten" Hindu-König abgeholzt. 

2 Großer Stūpa: Ruvanaveli-Dagoba in Anurādhapura

Der Ruvanavelisaya Dagoba, der Große Stūpa, wurde von König Dutthagamani (reg. 161 - 137 v. Chr.) zum Dank für den Sieg über den Tamilenkönig Elara errichtet.

"Im Jahre 1987 brauten sich schicksalschwangere Wolken über der Dagoba zusammen. Sie war teilweise eingestürzt und drohte, völlig zu zerfallen - in den Augen vieler Buddhisten ein schreckliches Omen für das Land. Zu jenem Zeitpunkt kriselte es in Sri Lanka an allen Fronten: Einerseits war eine großangelegte militärische Aktion gegen die Tamil Tigers im Gange, die aber in erster Linie zahllosen tamilischen Zivilisten das Leben kostete; vor diesem Hintergrund drohte eine Invasion Indiens, dem aus Rücksicht auf seine eigene, 55 Mio. starke tamilische Bevölkerung das Schicksal der srilankischen Tamilen nicht gleichgültig sein konnte. Auf der anderen Seite wiederum machte sich ein singhalesischer Chauvinismus stark, angeführt von der faschistischen JVP [Janata Vimukti Peramuna], der auf der Ausmerzung von allem beharrte, das antisinghalesisch erschien. Unter diesen Umständen schien der Verfall der Dagoba den Zerfall Sri Lankas zu symbolisieren. Präsident Jayawardhene [geb. 1906, Staatspräsident 1978 - 1988], der sich gerade zufällig in Anuradhapura aufhielt, wurde beim Anblick der Dagoba kreidebleich und untersagte der Presse, über ihren Zustand zu berichten."

[Quelle: Krack, Rainer: Sri Lanka. -- 6., komplett aktualisierte Aufl. -- Bielefeld : Reise Know-how, 2000. -- (Reise Know-how). -- ISBN 3894168404. -- S. 422f. -- {Wenn Sie HIER klicken, können Sie dieses Buch  bei amazon.de bestellen}]

82. Thūpārāmamhi thūpassa,
ṭhitaṭhāne tatheva ca;
samādhito’tha vuṭṭhāya,
Silācetiyaṭhānago.

82. Ebenso tat er an der Stelle, wo heute der Stūpa im Thūpārāma1 [in Anurādhapura] steht. Dann erhob er sich aus der Versenkung und ging zum Platz des heutigen Sīlacetiya [in Anurādhapura].

Kommentar:

1 Der Thūpārāma-Dagoba ist vermutlich der älteste erhaltene Dagoba Sri Lankas. Er wurde von König Devanampiya Tissa (reg. 247 - 207 v. Chr.) im 3. Jhdt. v. Chr. erbaut. Heute ist er 19 m hoch

Abb.: Thūpārāma-Stūpa, Anurādhapura


Abb.: Thūpārāma-Stūpa, Anurādhapura

83. Sahāgate devagaṇe,
gaṇī samanusāsiya;
tato Jetavanaṃ buddho,
buddhasabbatthakoa agā.

a Geiger: buddhisabbaddhago

83. Der Führer der Gruppe (des Ordens) belehrte die versammelten Göttergruppen, dann ging der Buddha, der den ganzen Weg der Einsicht gegangen ist, nach Jetavana.

Kommentar:

Die Besuche Buddhas in Sri Lankā werden heute noch von vielen Buddhisten als historische Tatsache betrachtet. Heinz Bechert berichtet folgenden Vorfall:

"Zu den aus den Chroniken entnommenen Thesen des singhalesisch-buddhistischen Nationalismus gehört bekanntlich die Tradition, dass der Buddha selbst Ceylon besucht haben und dem singhalesischen Volk einen besonderen Auftrag für die Erhaltung seiner Religion erteilt haben soll.

Als Professor Senerat Paranavitana [geb. 1896], der zweifellos bedeutendste singhalesische Archäologe und Epigraphiker der Gegenwart, 1961 in einem Vortrag darlegte, die Berichte von den Besuchen des Buddha in Ceylon seien Legenden und keine historischen Zeugnisse, wurde er heftig angegriffen. Einige kleine Proben dieser Angriffe möchte ich meinen Lesern doch nicht vorenthalten.

«The Vice-Chancellor of the Vidyalankara Buddhist University of Ceylon. Pandit Kiriwattuduwe Sri Pragnasara Nayaka Thera, said that Dr. Paranavitana's statement could be classified either as childish or humorous talk. Buddhist should not, therefore, be perturbed.»

«The Vice-Chancellor gave several instances to prove that the Buddha visited Ceylon. Anyone who bad read the Tripitaka, Mahawamsa and the Deepawamsa would not take Dr. Paranavitana's statement seriously, he said.»

«He added that Buddhists all over the world and even non-Buddhists believe that Lord Buddha visited Ceylon at least three times. He said he felt sorry that an eminent scholar like Dr. Paranavitana should have made such a statement.»

«'Senarath Paranavitana, world renowned retired Archaeological Commissioner, appears to have been bought over by the Catholic Church and hence his theory that Lord Buddha did not visit Ceylon`, said Ven. Nagoda Punnyananda Adikarana Sangha Nayaka Thera, Principal of Ananda Pirivena, Kitulampitiya, Galle.»

«He said that this utterance was so grave that if he happened to be ViceChancellor of either Vidyodaya University or Vidyalankara University and if Dr. Paranavitana happened to be a lecturer in one of them, he would have dismissed him from service immediately an this ground.»

«lt was a grave injustice, he said, to put forward new theories to disprove what was recorded in books and what has been accepted wholeheartedly by the Buddhist world to be true.»

«Pundit Henegama Sugathananda Thera, principal of Narawila Abayaraja Pirrivena said that if Dr. Paranavitana had nothing new to report, he should not have made such a pronouncement and try disprove historical facts. He should not be pardoned for his irresponsible utterance.»

Es gibt wohl kaum ein treffenderes Beispiel für die merkwürdige Doppelgesichtigkeit des modernen ceylonesischen Buddhismus. Einerseits wird die Lehre des Buddha als Religion der Vernunft bezeichnet und der Gegensatz gegen die dogmatischen Religionen hervorgehoben, und andererseits wird ein Gelehrter mit solcher Heftigkeit angegriffen, der eine Überlieferung bezweifelt, die gar nicht in den kanonischen Schriften des Buddhismus enthalten ist und mit der Lehre des Buddha gar nichts zu tun hat, eine Überlieferung, die moderne nichtceylonesische Buddhisten niemals als Bestandteil ihrer religiösen Überzeugung betrachten würden. Auf der anderen Seite erregt es aber kaum Aufsehen in Ceylon, wenn angesehene buddhistische Schriftsteller und Mönche die kanonische buddhistische Überlieferung in nicht unwesentlichen Punkten umdeuten. Es ist ganz klar, dass man in diesem Fall Paranavitana nicht aus Gründen religiöser Überzeugung, sondern aufgrund seines Angriffes gegen Grundlagen des singhalesisch-buddhistischen Nationalismus entgegengetreten ist."

[Quelle: Bechert, Heinz <1932 - >: Buddhismus, Staat und Gesellschaft in den Ländern des Theravāda-Buddhismus. -- Bd. 1: Grundlagen. Ceylon. -- Frankfurt a. M. [u.a.] : Metzner, ©1966. -- (Schriften des Instituts für Asienkunde in Hamburg ; XVII/1). -- S. 363f.]

Eine "liberale" Haltung zur Historizität der Besuche Buddhas in Lankā nahm schon 1946 E. W. Adikaram in seiner vorzüglichen Dissertation ein. Adikaram wurde später einer der führenden Kritiker des Mahāvaṃsa-Nationalismus und -Chauvinismus wurde:

"These visits [of Buddha to Ceylon], as noted above, are recorded only in the Dīpavamsa, Samanta-pāsādikā and the Mahāvaṃsa. No mention is made of them in any part of the Pali Canon. This negative evidence, though a weighty one, is not sufficient for us to arrive at a decision and deny the truth of this tradition. This tradition may probably have arisen from the arrival, before the advent of Mahinda, of some Buddhist missionaries from India and also from the existence in Ceylon of a considerable number of Buddhists among the earlier inhabitants, namely, the Yakkhas and the Nāgas.

To support this hypothesis there is another valuable reference in the Mahāvaṃsa. The Mahiyaṅgaṇa thūpa, says the Great Chronicle, existed in Ceylon long before the arrival of Mahinda. When the Buddha first visited Ceylon, the deva Mahasumana of the Sumanakūta Mountain requested the Buddha to give him something to worship. The Master took a handful of hairs from his head and gave it to the deva. The latter enshrined it respectfully in a thūpa which he built at the place where the Master had sat. After the passing away of the Buddha, the thera Sarabhū, a disciple of the thera Sāriputta, brought the collar-bone of the Buddha and deposited it in the same thūpa. Later Uddhacūlābhaya, the son of king Devānampiya-tissa's brother, saw the wondrous cetiya and covered it over afresh and made it thirty cubits high. Still later, king Dutthagāmani, dwelling there while he made war upon the Damilas, built a mantle cetiya over it eighty cubits, high.

When the extraordinary elements on this account are removed, we find a foundation of historical truth, namely, that long before Mahinda's day there were at least a few Buddhist monks in Ceylon and that this cetiya was built by them.

Nor can one, with regard to the question at hand, ignore the arrival in succession of a large number of people from India, among whom, it is difficult to believe, there were no Buddhists.

In order to perform the consecration of Vijaya, the ministers sent an embassy to Madhurā requesting the Pāndyan king to send his daughter to be the queen of Vijaya. In due course she was sent along with many maidens, craftsmen and a thousand families of the eighteen guilds.

The arrival of Princess Bhaddakaccānā and her retinue, too, brings us to the same, or, in fact, a more decisive conclusion. Bhaddakaccānā was the youngest daughter of Pandu, the Sakyan, a cousin of the Buddha. ' She was (even as) a woman made of gold, fair of form and eagerly wooed. For (love of) her did seven kings send precious gifts to the king (Pandu), but for fear of the king, as since he was told (by soothsayers) that an auspicious journey would come to pass, nay, one with the result of royal consecration, he placed his daughter speedily upon a ship, together with thirty-two women friends, and launched the ship upon the Ganges, saying : ' Whosoever can, let him take my daughter.' And they could not overtake her, but the ship fared swiftly thence. Already on the second day they reached the haven called Gonagamaka and there they landed robed like nuns (pabbajitā).

Here two facts support our view. First, she is said to be very closely related to the Buddha, and one may rightly infer that she and her friends were not all ignorant of the teachings of their royal kinsman. Indeed, we would not be far wrong if we take for granted that they, and at least Bhaddakaccānā and some of her friends, were followers of the Buddha. Secondly, we are told they came disguised as nuns (pabbajitā). Though, as noted before, it is not possible to say definitely what was meant by pabbajitā, considering the locality from which they came and their connections with the Buddha's family, it is very likely that this word signified Buddhist bhikkhunīs.
As shown in the preceding pages, there lived in pre-Mahindian Ceylon people belonging to almost every religious sect then existing in India. Even Ājīvakas who were, by no means, so numerous as the followers of the Buddha are mentioned as living in Ceylon. How then is one to account for the absence of any mention of Buddhists ? The only explanation possible is that silence was observed with regard to their existence in order to create a dark background on the canvas on which the enthusiastic narrator of Buddhist history might successfully paint his glowing picture of Mahinda's miraculous conversion of the island.

Again, when we consider how rapidly the conversion of Ceylon took place, it is difficult to believe that the people were, till then, entirely ignorant of the teaching. After the very first discourse of Mahinda forty thousand people including the king embraced the Buddhist faith. His other discourses, too, were equally successful.

All these facts help us to conclude that Buddhism did exist in Ceylon before the time of Mahinda, though it was only after Devānampiyatissa's conversion that it became the state religion of the country. Moreover, it may be justly said that Mahinda's mission had as its chief aim not the mere introduction of the teachings of the Buddha to Ceylon but the formation of the monastic order and thereby the 'establishment' of the sāsanā in the island."

[Quelle: Adikaram, E. W. < - 1986>: Early history of Buddhism in Ceylon or State of Buddhism in Ceylon as revealed by the Pāli commentaries of the 5th century A.D. -- Colombo : Gunasena, 1946. -- Zugleich: London, Univ., Dissertation. -- S. 46 - 48]


7. Schluss


84. Evaṃ Laṅkāya nātho, hitam amitamatī āyatiṃ pekkhamāno;
tasmiṃ kālamhi Laṃkāsurabhujagagaṇādīnam atthañ ca passaṃ;
āgā tikkhattum etaṃ ativipuladayo lokadīpo sudīpaṃ;
dīpo tenāyam āsī sujanabahumato dhammadīpāvabhāsī.

84. So ist der Herr Lankās, von unbegrenztem Verstand, auf das zukünftige Heil Lankās blickend, sehend, was zu jenem Zeitpunkt gut war für die Gruppen von Asura1 [Dämonen], Nāga [Schlangen] usf., dreimal2 zu dieser schönen Insel gekommen, er, die überbarmherzige Insel / Leuchte der Welten. Deswegen wurde diese Insel, von den guten Menschen hochgeschätzt, als Insel des Dhamma [Insel der Lehre und gerechte Insel] berühmt.

Kommentar:

Versmaß:

Sragdharā
(21 Silben: 7.7.7; Schema: ma ra bha na ya ya ya: mrabhnair yānāṃ traiyeṇa trimuniyatiyutā Sragdharā kīrtiteyam: "Diese Sragdharā ist bekannt als aus ma ra bha na und drei ya bestehend mit drei Zäsuren nach jeweils sieben (muni = ṛṣi = die sieben Ṛṣis) Silben." )

ˉ ˉ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˘ ˘ ˘ ˘ ˘ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˉ
ˉ ˉ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˘ ˘ ˘ ˘ ˘ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˉ
ˉ ˉ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˘ ˘ ˘ ˘ ˘ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˉ
ˉ ˉ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˘ ˘ ˘ ˘ ˘ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˉ

Zur Metrik siehe:

Payer, Alois <1944 - >: Einführung in die Exegese von Sanskrittexten : Skript.  -- Kap. 8: Die eigentliche Exegese, Teil II: Zu einzelnen Fragestellungen synchronen Verstehens. -- Anhang B: Zur Metrik von Sanskrittexten. -- URL: http://www.payer.de/exegese/exeg08b.htm

1 Asura

"Asura

In Pali Literature the Asuras are classed among the inferior deities together with the

  • supannas,
  • gandhabbas,
  • yakkhas (DA.i.51),
  • garulas and
  • nāgas (Mil.117).

Rebirth as an Asura is considered as one of the four unhappy rebirths or evil states (apāyā), the others being niraya, tiracchānayoni and pettivisaya (E.g., It.93; J.vi.595; J.v.186; Pv.iv.11).

The fight between the Devas and the Asuras is mentioned even in the oldest books of the Tipitaka and is described in identical words in several passages (E.g., D.ii.285; S.i.222; iv.201ff; v.447; M.i.253; A.iv.432; also S.i.216ff).

A chief or king of the Asuras is often referred to as Asurinda (*), several Asuras being credited with the role of leader, most commonly, however, Vepacitti (E.g., S.i.222; iv.201ff; J.i.205) and Rahu (A.ii.17, 53; iii.243).

(*) Sakka was also called Asurinda and Asurādhipa; see, e.g., J.i.66 (Asurindena pavitthadevanagaram viya) and J.v.245, where we are told that from the time he conquered the Asuras he was called Asurādhipa.

Besides these we find Pahārāda (A.iv.197, 200) (v.l. Mahābhadda), Sambara (S.i.227), Verocana (S.i.225; probably another name for Rāhu, see DA.ii.689), Bali (D.ii.259), Sucitti (D.ii.269) and Namucī (D.ii.269).

The Asuras are spoken of as dwelling in the ocean after having been conquered by Vajira-hattha (Indra, elsewhere, [J.v.139] called Asurappamaddana) and are called Vāsava's brethren, of wondrous powers and of great glory. They were present at the preaching of the Mahā Samaya Sutta (see DA.ii.689). Buddhaghosa says that they were all descendants of an Asura maiden named Sujātā. This cannot be the Sujātā, Vepacitti's daughter, whom Sakka married (J.i.205-6). See also Dānavā.

There were evidently several classes of Asuras, and two are mentioned in the Pitakas, the Kālakañjakas and the Dānaveghasas. The Dānaveghasas carried bows in their hands. The Kālakañjakas were of fearsome shape (D.ii.259), and were considered the lowest among the Asuras (D.iii.7; see also Kālañkajaka and Vepacitti).

Once the Asuras dwelt in Tāvatimsa together with the devas. When Magha Mānavaka was born as Sakka, he did not relish the idea of sharing a kingdom with others, and having made the Asuras drunken, he had them hurled by their feet on to the steeps of Sineru. There they tumbled into what came to be known as the Asurabhanava, on the lowest level of Sineru, equal in extent to Tāvatimsa. Here grew the Cittapātalī tree, and when it blossomed the Asuras knew they were no longer in the deva-world.

Wishing to regain their kingdom, they climbed Sineru, "like ants going up a pillar." When the alarm was given, Sakka went out to give battle to them in the ocean, but being worsted in the fight, he fled in his Vejayantaratha. Fearing that his chariot hurt the young Garulas, he had it turned back. The Asuras, thinking that Sakka had obtained reinforcements, turned and fled right into the Asurabhavana. Sakka went back to his city and in that moment of victory, the Vejayantapāsāda sprang up from the ground. To prevent the Asuras from coming back again, Sakka set up as guard in five places Nāgas, Garulas, Kumbhandas, Yakkhas and the Four Great Kings. Everywhere were images of Indra bearing the thunderbolt in his hand. (J.i.202-4; DhA.i.272-80; the same story, differing slightly in details, is found in SnA.484-5). There it is said that when Sakka was born among them, the Asuras received him with great cordiality; see also the various incidents of the Asura war mentioned in the Samyutta Nikāya I. 216ff.

The Asuras are sometimes called Pubbadevā (SnA.484) and their kingdom is 10,000 leagues in extent. SnA.485; elsewhere, in the same page, it is given as 100,000 leagues.

In Buddhaghosa's time, the bygone lustre of the word Asura (as equivalent to Ahura) seems to have faded. His explanation (SA.i.260) of the name is interesting. When Sakka was born with his followers in the Asura-world (which later became Tāvatimsa) the Asuras prepared a drink called gandapāna. Sakka warned his companions not to drink it, but the Asuras became drunk and were thrown down Sineru. Halfway down they regained consciousness and made a vow never to drink intoxicants (surd) again; hence their name Asura.

The Anguttara Commentary (ii.526) defines Asura as bībhaccha, awful, vile. They had a drum called ālambara, made of a crab's claw. They left it behind in their flight from Sakka, and since then Sakka has the use of it (J.ii.344).

A story is told by the Buddha (S.2, v.446) of a man who once saw a whole army with its four divisions enter a lotus stalk and the man thought he was mad. But the Buddha says that it was an Asura army in flight. Here the Asuras would seem to be fairies or nature spirits."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

"Les asura - démon - sont des esprits démoniaques opposés aux deva (parfois appelés sura). Le vocable védique désignait une créature divine et servit à qualifier des dieux comme Indra, Agni et Varuna. Puis, à la suite d'un détournement de sens, le mot qui était un dérivé de asu, le souffle, la vie, devint un non-dieu par métanalyse du mot comme étant construit avec sura, dieu, précédé du préfixe sanscrit privatif a. On retrouve d'ailleurs les dénominations ahura et deva dans le zoroastrisme mais les significations sont inversées, les ahura étant des créatures du bien alors que les deva sont celles du mal, ce que semble induire une origine commune aux peuples qui ont engendré ces croyances, un des arguments en faveur de la théorie de l'invasion aryenne.

Condamnés à vivre dans les régions inférieures dans les palais construits par leur architecte Maya, leurs tentatives pour conquérir les cieux est dans l'hindouisme classique à l'origine de la tension permanente qui les oppose aux dieux.

Puissants par nature, ils peuvent accroître leur pouvoir grâce à l'ascèse. En effet, au terme d'une ascèse le dieu Brahmâ accorde une faveur à l'ascète méritant, sans faire de distinction quant à son identité et à sa nature.

Dans ce cas, les asura peuvent acquérir une telle puissance que l'intervention des divinités majeures, Shiva ou Vishnu qui descend sur terre (avatara) est nécessaire. Cette opposition est au cœur de la plupart des récits mythologiques indiens:
  • Dans le Râmâyana, Vishnu s'incarne en Râma pour lutter contre le démon Ravana qui avait acquis l'invincibilité mais avait par mépris négligé d'inclure l'homme parmi ses ennemis potentiels
  • Dans le Mahâbhârata, les dieux s'incarnent dans les cinq Pandava pour lutter contre les cent Kaurava considérés comme des incarnations d'asura

Parmi les asura contre lesquels a dû lutter Vishnu on peut compter, Ravana (avatar: Râma), Hiranyashipu (avatar : Narasimha), Bali (avatar du nain brahmane Vamana).

L'avatar de Krishna dut lutter contre de nombreux asura notamment pendant son enfance où il dut vaincre tous les démons envoyés par son oncle malveillant, Kamsa, pour le tuer.

Shiva est connu pour avoir vaincu le démon éléphant Gajâsura, Andhaka, et avoir détruit les trois forteresses démoniaques, en or, en argent et en fer que les fils de l'asura Târaka avaient fait bâtir dans les cieux par Maya.

Le combat le plus connu de la déesse Durgâ est celui qu'elle livra contre le démon polymorphe Mahisha (le « Buffle », forme qu'il avait initialement adopté) ce qui lui a valu l'épithète de Mahishamardinî ou Mahishâsuramardinî, la tueuse du Démon buffle.

Parmi les navagrahâ, Rahu (l'éclipse) et Ketu (la comète) sont considérés comme les deux parties du corps de l'asura qui avait tenté de dérober la liqueur d'immortalité amrita lors du barattage de la mer de lait, tandis que Shukra (Vénus) est considéré comme le précepteur et le « chapelain » (purohita : responsable du culte) des asura.

Certains asura repentis viennent parfois en aide aux Dieux, la rédemption leur est donc possible.

Noms locaux des Asura

tibétain : Lha-ma-yin, Lha-min ; mongol : Assuri ; chinois : Axiuluo; japonais : Ashura [アスラ].

Source
  • Louis Frédéric, Dictionnaire de la civilisation indienne, Robert Laffont, 1987
  • RENOU Louis, FILLIOZAT, Jean, L'Inde Classique : Manuel des études indiennes, Tome I, réédition A.- Maisonneuve, Paris, 1985 (1ere édition, Paris-Hanoï, E.F.E.O., 1953)"

[Quelle: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asura. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-10]

"Asura in fiction
    Asura is also a character from the video game, Samurai Shodown.
  • Asura is the main antagonist from the Karmatrón comic book.
  • A chojin wrestler named Asuraman in Kinnikuman and its sequel Ultimate Muscle.
  • In Fist of the North Star there is a country called The Land of Asura that is home to many of the series' martial arts and merciless warriors called Asura who fear only the rakshasa.
  • Asuras are a race of extraplanar creatures in some editions of the Dungeons & Dragons roleplaying game.
  • Asura is a central character in the Iain M Banks science fiction book Feersum Endjinn, with an explicit reference to the Hindu etymology.
  • In Outcast: Dragon Secrets, Ivar, the last of the Asura, is the loyal companion of Timothy, the main character. Ivar's body is covered with a swirling design that allows him to change the pigmint of his skin, allowing him to blend with anything.
  • In the Digital Devil Saga dualigy, Asura is a term referring to certain tuners (humans with a virus that causes them to transform into demons). All the main playable characters are Asuras, and their Avatar forms are all based and named around the mythological Asuras and Devas.
  • In the Naruto anime/manga, the character Gaara, is named after an asura.
  • In the RG Veda manga, Ashura is the name of a main character as well as a clan of gods. The series is very loosely based off of the Vedas, most references of which are found in character names alone.
  • Asura is the name of a server for the MMORPG, Final Fantasy XI. It is also the name of the Queen of Summons in Final Fantasy IV -- an ally who casts healing and protective spells on the party. In addition, Asura is a name given to various mid-level swords in the series, usually katanas.

    Asura's armour is a very powerful chest plate found in Venus lighthouse in the RPG, Golden Sun.

  • In that same game, Asura is the special attack delievered by the artifact weapon Kikuichi-monji.
  • Asura Strike is a skill for the Monk class in the MMORPG, Ragnarok Online
  • Azura is a deadra (demon) in the RPG Elder Scrolls Series.
  • Asura is a powerful sword with a counterattack(Asura'sRevenge) bought from Fascinaturu in exchange for LP in the RPG, Saga Frontier.
  • Asura is a character class in the MMORPG Tantra Online, which resembles an assassin."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asura. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-10]

2 Die drei Besuche des Buddha:

  1. Besuch: Uttarakuru -- (riesige Luftlinie) -- Mahiyaṅgaṇa -- (ca. 2000 km Luftlinie) -- Uruvelā
  2. Besuch: Jetavana (Sāvatthi) -- (ca. 2000 km Luftlinie) -- Nāgadīpa -- (ca. 2000 km Luftlinie) -- Jetavana
  3. Besuch: Jetavana (Sāvatthi) -- (ca. 2300 km Luftlinie) -- Kalyānī -- (ca. 65 km Luftlinie) -- Sumanakūṭa -- (ca. 155 km Luftlinie) -- Dīghavāpi -- (ca. 160 km Luftlinie) -- Anurādhapura -- (ca. 2100 km Luftlinie) -- Jetavana


Abb.: Orte in Sri Lanka, die nach der erfundenen Tradition von Buddha Gotama besucht wurden
(©MS Encarta)

Vaṃsatthappakāsinī (S. 117):

Tattha, evan ti ayaṃ saddo nidassanattho; so hi Tathāgatassa idhāgantvā kataṃ buddhakiccañ ca gamanattayañ ca niddissati. Ettha tāva hitaṃ amitamatī hitam amitamatī ti ca, Laṅkāya asurā ca bhujagā ca Laṅkāsurabhujagā: tesaṃ  Laṅkāsurabhujagagaṇādīnaṃ atthañ cā ti ca; tikkhattuṃ etan ti ca; tena ayaṃ āsi iti ca; sujanehi bahumato, bahūhi vā sujanehi mato ti ca, evam padacchedo veditabbo. Evaṃ padasambandho: amitamatī nātho evaṃ Laṅkāya āyatiṃ hitañ ca pekkhamāno tasmiṃ kālamhi Laṅkāsurabhujagagaṇādīnaṃ atthaṃ passaṃ, ativipuladayo lokadīpo etaṃ sudīpaṃ tikkhattum āgā; tena ayaṃ dīpo dhammadīpāvabhāsī sujanabahumato āsī ti.


7.1. Kolophon


ti Kalyāṇāgamanaṃ [niṭṭhitaṃ]

Sujanappasādasaṃvegatthāya kate mahāvaṃse
Tathāgatābhigamanaṃ nāma Paṭhamo paricchedo.

Dies ist das erste Kapitel des Mahāvaṃsa, der zum Vertrauen und zur Erschütterung der guten Menschen verfasst wurde. Der Titel dieses Kapitels ist "Besuche des Vollendeten (in Lankā)".


8. Vergleich von Mahāvaṃsa, Extended Mahāvaṃsa und Mahāvaṃsa-Tīkā zu Kapitel 1


M = Mahāvaṃsa; EM = Extended Mahāvaṃsa; MT = Mahāvaṃsa Ṭīkā.
M
I., 1-4.—Proem.
I., 5-10.—-Names of the earlier Buddhas (Dīpankara to Kassapa) from whom the Bodhisatta received the prophecy of his future Buddhahood.
EM
I, 1-4.—Proem.
I„ 5-32.—Details of the lives in which the Bodhisatta meets the earlier Buddhas and receives from them the prophecy of his future Buddhahood.
The details given in EM. are also found in MT. (55-65), which in the case of some of the Buddhas e.g. Sumana (57.21f), Anomadassī (58.11f.) Paduma (58-28f), Sumedha (59.27f), Sujāta (60.20f), Siddhattha (62.6f), Piyadassī (61.4f), Dhammadassī (81.22f), Vipassī (62.31f), and Vessabhū (G3.21f), gives the reasons for their respective names. In most eases (see e.g. foot-notes to MT. 60, 811 62, 63) the reasons are the same as found in the Buddhavamsa Commentary passim,. EM. does not give these reasons. Details of the Bodhisatta's lives are also given in the Nidānakathā of the Jātaka Commentary, and the Pāli Thūpavamsa. Generally, all accounts agree with each other, but in some cases EM. differs. Thus, EM. says (1.53) that in the time of Padumuttara the Bodhisatta was a Jatila named Mahāratthaka, while all the other sources (MT. 59. 11, JNK. 37, PThv. 12) describe him as a "mahāratthiya" and give his name as Jatila. In the time of Piyadassī, the Bodhisatta, according to EM. (1.68) was a brahamin named Kassapa : all other sources call him a mānava. It is interesting to note that in EM. (eg. 1. 74, xix. 65) the term Sākyapungava is used as a generic name for any Buddha not only Gotama. The particulars of the Bodhisatta in the time of Kakusandha Buddha are more detailed in EM. (I. 114f) than elsewhere.

The names of the different kappas, in which the different Buddhas were born — Sāra, Sāramanda, Manda, Vara, Sela, Bhāsa and Bhadda — aregiven in EM. but not elsewhere.

  EM
I., 133 - 138. — The Bodhisatta is born as Vessantara, gives away his wife and children, and is reborn in Tusita as the deva Santusita.
MT.'s reference to Vessantara is much shorter — (65.5f); it does not mention the name Santusita.
  EM
I., 139 - 165.—Events leading j to Gotama's Renunciation, and attainment of Buddhahood.
The MT. account (65.12f) resembles EM. almost word for word. EM. makes no reference to the Kisāgotamī episode, MT. does (65.271). PThv. 20 f. which is similar to MT. has a passage about the, Cūlāmani Thūpa, so does JNk. but neither MT. nor EM.
I., 11-18.—Gotama attains Buddhahood.
EM
I., 160-172.—Gotama attains Buddhahood.
The MT. very closely resembles (66.28f) the EM.
  EM
I., 173 - 215. — The Buddha has a vision of the future of his teaching, and the future of Lanka, in due order — the First Sermon, his three visits to Ceylon, the colonisation of Ceylon by Vijaya, the three Recitals and the conversion of Ceylon by Mahinda.
The account agrees almost word for word with MT. (67.7 to 69.6). Cp. Dīpavamsa I. 15-28.
M
I., 14.—The First Sermon.
EM
I., 215 - 273. — Sahampati's request to the Buddha to preach and the reason why the Buddha waited till then. The journey to Benares (Kāsipura) on foot ; the meeting with Upaka. The First Sermon at Isipatana and the attainment of arahantship of the Pancavaggiyā.
The account is substantially the same as MT. 69.7 f. but expanded. EM. gives the reason why the Buddha went on foot to Isipatana (I. 244f), MT. does not. MT. (70.6) merely refers to the meeting with Upaka (Kāsipuram gacchanto antarāmagge, Upakena mddhim mantetvā) but EM. describes the meeting in great detail, with a wealth of poetic imagery in 25 verses (249-273). EM (279-288) describes the wonders attendant on the First Sermon and gives the names of the Pancavaggiyā, with details of their attainments, culminating in arahantship, after the preaching of the Anattalakkhana Sutta. MT. has only five lines (70.7 to 11).
M
I., 15-16.—The conversion of the Bhaddavaggiyā and of Uruvela-Kassapa and his 1000 Jatilas.
EM
I., 289 - 296. — The conversion of Yasa and his friends.
I., 297 - 300. — The conversion of the Bhaddavaggiyā.
I., 300 - 472. — The conversion of the Tebhātika-Jatilā (Uruvela-Kassapa, Nadī-Kassapa and Gayā-Kassapa) and their followers.
EM. (202) gives the names of Yasa's friends, not MT. (70.13 to 18); EM. calls the Bhaddavaggiyā "timsamatte kumāre, Bhaddiyappamukhe" and adds (297f) that they were the step-brothers of the king of Kosala, information not found elsewhere. EM. describes in very great detail the story of the conversion of Uruvela-Kassapa with an account of the numerous pātihariya performed by the Buddha to that end. This aocount is evidently taken from Vinaya I. 24 f. The account in MT. occupies only a few lines (70.25-71.27).
M
I, 19-30. —The Buddha's first visit, to Ceylon to the assembly of the Yakkhas at Mahānāgavana ; the transplantation of the Yakkhas to Giridīpa.
EM
I, 473 - 645. — Same subject as M.
EM. agrees very doselv with MT. (71.20-81.8) — the description of Mahānāgavana (EM. 475-485; MT. 72.12-73.5), the pātihāriya performed by the Buddha to subdue the Yākkhas (EM. 496-612; MT. 78.26—80.8), the description of Giridīpa (EM. (512-620 ; MT. 80.5 to 17), the bringing up of Giridīpa, the transportation of the Yakkhas into it and setting it back in its original place, the recital of Paritta for the protection of Lanka (622-643; MT. 80.18—81.16). MT. says (92.9) that the description of Mahānāgavana was taken over from the Atthakathā ( = Sīhalatthakathā); so were the details of the pātihāriya (MT. 93.2). Evidently the full story of the Buddha's visits were given in great detail in Ak. (cf. atthakathānayam aparihāpetvā, at MT. 82.6) and was interspersed with Pāli verses (eg. MT. 79.17f). It is noteworthy that in the account of the Buddha's first visit there is very close resemblance between and MT. and Dpv. even in the matter of language.
M
I., 31-36. — The Buddha preaches to the devas who are present ; Mahāsumana of Sumanakūta attains sotāpatti. The Buddha gives him a handful of his hair for worship over which the deva builds a thūpa.
EM
I., 646 - 657ab — The Buddha preach to the devas, nāgas, dānavas and gandhabbas. The rest as in M. but at greater length.
The EM. account is a versification of the same passage as in MT. 95. 16-98.11.
M
I., 37-43.—Further history of the Mahiyaṅgaṇa Thūpa, its enlargement, in succession, by Sarabhū (who deposited in it the Buddha's collarbone) to 12 cubits : by Uddhacūlābhaya to 30 cubits and by Dutthagāmani to 80 cubits.
EM
I., 660 - 680. — Sarabhu, with 1,000 monks deposits the collarbone and enlarges the thūpa. The deposit is covered by medavannapāsānā brought
from the nāga-world by two novices. Simabali (Sīvali) and Sum ana. They return to Kusināra. Later, 236 years after the Buddha's death, Uddhacūlābhaya, having seen miracles at the cetiya, enlarges it to 30 cubits. Dutthagāmani, after becoming sole king of Ceylon, visits the cetiya and builds it to 80 cubits.
The EM. account is the same in all particulars as that of MT. (98.24-100.28). EM. states that Dutthagāmani built the thūpa after his conquest of the Damilas (Damilamaddanam katvā punāgantvā), but M. and MT. have Damilamāddanam karonto tam thānam patvā, meaning that it was during his campaign against the Damilas.
M
I., 44-70. — War between the Nāga princes, Cūlodara and Mahodara. The Buddha visits Lanka a second time in Cittamāsa, in the 5th year after Buddhahood, accompanied by Samiddhisumana carrying a rājāyatana-tree to shade the Buddha. The story of Samiddhi's past life in Nāgadīpa. Maniakkhika pays homage to the Buddha and obtains his consent to visit Ceylon again.
EM
I., 679-680. M. 42-43.
I., 681 707.—EM. agrees almost word for word with M.
The account of the Buddha's second visit is commented upon in MT. 101-9—111.5. The MT. (104.6) gives the name of Mahodara's sister Tiracchikā (v.l. Kidabbikā) but neither M. nor EM. has it. It also contains (102.16f) two traditions regarding the relationship between Cūlodara and Mahodara, but EM. takes no notice of this fact.
M
I., 71-83. — Third visit of the Buddha to Lanka three years later at Maniakkhika's request. He leaves his footprint on Sumanakūta and consecrates by this presence the various future holy spots of Ceylon.
EM
I., 708 - 720 = M. 71-38.
The account of the third visit is found in MT. 111.17-117. 5. It adds (111.13) that Maniakkhika visited the Buddha at Jetavana " mānavakavannena." It also gives (114.15 f) the reason for the Buddha leaving his foot-print on Sumanakūta and why the mountain was so called. It explains that Dīghavāpi was on the side of Sumanakūta."
[Quelle: G. P. Malalasekera (1899 - 1973). -- In: Extended Mahāvaṃsa / ed. by G. P. Malalasekera. -- Colombo : Times of Ceylon, 1934. -- LVIII, 380 S. -- (Aluvihāra Series ; III). -- Reprint: Oxford : Pali Text Society, 1988. -- ISBN 0-86013-285-4. -- S. XI - XV.]

Zu Kapitel 2: Der Stammbaum Siddhatta's