Zitierweise / cite as:
Naradasmrti / übersetzt und kommentiert von Alois Payer <1944 - >. -- 5. Erster Titel: Schuldrecht. -- 1. Nârada I.1 - 63. -- Fassung vom 2004-03-18. -- URL: http://www.payer.de/naradasmrti/narada051.htm -- [Stichwort].
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Dieser Teil ist ein Kapitel von:
Naradasmrti / übersetzt und kommentiert von Alois Payer <1944 - >
Dieser Text ist Teil der Abteilung Sanskrit von Tüpfli's Global Village Library
Zugrundegelgte Textausgabe:
Nârada: The Nâradasm*rti / critically edited with an introduction, annotated translation, and appendices by Richard W. Lariviere. -- Philadelphia : Dept. of South Asia Regional Studies, University of Pennsylvania, 1989. -- 2 vol. -- ISBN: 0936115068 (set).
(=J ): Verszählung in Jollys Textausgabe und Übersetzung:
Nârada: The institutes of Nârada : together with copious extracts from the Nâradabhâshya of Asahâya and other standard commentaries / ed. by Julius Jolly. .. Calcutta : Asiatic Society, 1885. -- 18, 231 S. -- (Bibliotheca Indica ; 102)
The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33)
(=NMS ): Verszählung in Nâradîyamanusamhitâ:
Nârada: Nâradîyamanusa*mhitâ : witth the Bhâ*sya of Bhavasvâmin / ed. by K. Sâmba´siva `Sâstrî. -- Trivandrum : Government Press, 1929. -- 4, 200 S. -- (Trivandrum Sanskrit series ; 97 : `Srî Setu Lak*smî Prasâdamâlâ ; 9)
"The twenty-five sections into which the law of debt has been divided in this translation correspond in the main, though not throughout, to the headings proposed by Asahâya in different portions of his work. Asahâya, as pointed out before, is not consistent with himself in this respect. It is curious to note that the whole law of evidence, excepting the general rules laid down in the preceding chapters, has been inserted by Nârada between the divers rules of the law of debt. Ho seems to have followed in this respect, as in other particulars, the example set to him by the earlier legislators, such as Manu and Yâjnavalkya." [The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- S. 41]
1. siehe Dharmakos'a. -- Vol I,2. -- 1938. -- S. 622-623
1. (=J I.1.1, NMS 2.1) Als Schuldrecht (rnâdâna) wird überliefert:
gemäß dem Recht für Rückgabe und Rücknahme.
Aus Asahâya: Nâradabhâsya z. St.: "Das durch den »Dharma des Gebens und den Dharma des Nehmens« definierte »Schuldrecht«
Vijnânesvara: Mitâksarâ zu Yâjnavalkya II, 37 bezieht den letzten Teil (Geben und nehmen) auf den Verleiher, alles übrige auf den Schuldner.
2. - 21. siehe Dharmakos'a. -- Vol I,2. -- 1938. -- S. 690 - 702
2. (=J I.1.2, NMS 2.2) Wenn der Vater verstorben ist, sollen die Söhne die Schulden begleichen entsprechend ihrem Erbteil, wenn Erbteilung durchgeführt wurde, bzw. wenn keine Erbteilung durchgeführt wurde, soll der Sohn die Schulden begleichen, der den Vorsitz über und die Last der Verwaltung des Familienvermögens trägt.
"If a debt contracted by the father has not been repaid during his lifetime, by himself, it must be restored, after his death, by his sons. Should they separate, they shall repay it according to their respective shares. If they remain united, they shall pay it in common, or the manager shall pay it for the rest, no matter whether he may be the senior of the family or a younger member, who, during the absence of the oldest, or on account of his incapacity, has undertaken the management of the family estate. Asahâya." [The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"Bhavasvâmin states that there are three possibilities:
- if the sons have divided the inheritance, they divide the debt according to their snares of the estate;
- if they have not divided, but intend to do so, they pay off the debt from the estate prior to dividing the remaining property; and
- if the sons remain undivided, the son—or other heir—who assumes the responsibility for the family also assumes responsibility for the debt."
[Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
3. (=J I.1.3, NMS 2.3) Schulden die der Vaterbruder, demgegenüber keine Erbteilung stattgefunden hat, der Bruder oder die Mutter für die Großfamilie (kutumba) gemacht haben, müssen die Erben völlig begleichen.
Parallelstellen zu 2 + 3: Manu VIII, 166: "If the debtor be dead and (the money borrowed) was expended for the family, it must be paid by the relatives out of their own estate even if they are divided." [Übersetzung. G. Bühler, 1886]
Vishnu VI, 35, 36:
"35. And so shall the debt of the father (be paid) by (any one of) the brothers (or of their sons) before partition.
36. But after partition they shall severally pay according to their shares of the inheritance." [Übersetzung: J. Jolly, 1880]Yâjnavalkya II, 45: "Eine Schuld welche von ungeteilten Verwandten des Haushalts wegen gemacht ist, sollen, wenn der Herr des Hauses stirbt oder auswandert, die Teilnehmer an dem Gelde bezahlen." [Übersetzung: A. F. Stenzler, 1849]
Yâjnavalkya II, 50: "Wenn der Vater ausgewandert oder gestorben oder in Laster versunken ist, soll die Schuld von den Söhnen oder Enkeln bezahlt werden. Wenn diese sie leugnen, muss sie durch Zeugen bewiesen werden." [Übersetzung: A. F. Stenzler, 1849]
"A debt contracted for the household, by an unseparated paternal uncle or brother, or by the mother, must be paid by all the heirs. If they are separate in affairs they must pay for it according to their shares. If they live in union of interests, they must repay it in common. Asahâya." [The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]
4. (=J I.1.4, NMS 2.4) Wenn Schulden ohne Hinderungsgrund von den Söhnen geerbt wurden und von diesen nicht beglichen wurden, dann sollen die Enkelsöhne die Schulden des Großvaters väterlicherseits begleichen. Ab der vierten Generation hören die Schulden auf.
Parallelstellen: Yâjnavalkya II, 50: "Wenn der Vater ausgewandert oder gestorben oder in Laster versunken ist, soll die Schuld von den Söhnen oder Enkeln bezahlt werden. Wenn diese sie leugnen, muss sie durch Zeugen bewiesen werden." [Übersetzung: A. F. Stenzler, 1849]
"Asahâya proposes an explanation of this paragraph which is not in accordance with its literal meaning, and decidedly opposed to the principles of a sound method of interpretation. He says that the term ' grandsons' must be taken to relate to the grandsons of the debtor's sons, i.e. to the great-grandsons of the debtor, and that the term ' the fourth descendant' signifies the fourth in descent from the debtor's sons, i.e. the fifth in descent from the debtor himself. This assumption, he says, is necessary in order to reconcile the present rule with the statements of all other legislators, and with Nârada's own rule (par, 6)." [The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"Here we encounter Nârada's view on how long a debt continues in a family. This is far from a clear-cut issue. The problem in this verse comes with the ablative caturthât. It can mean either that the obligation stops with or after the fourth generation. The unanimous view is that it stops with the fourth generation, i.e., that the fourth generation does not have to pay the debt. The next problem is, how are the generations counted? Is the first generation the debtor or the debtor's son? The method of calculating the generations in this case is probably consistent with that of calculating other degrees of relationships in Hindu law—the propositus is always counted. This would mean that Nârada is saying that only the debtor, his son and his grandson are liable for the debt—not the debtor's great-grandson.
This contradicts the general rule that inheritance and the performance of the funerary rites (shrâddha) are co-extensive (see 1.5, for example). The resolution of this problem, which receives considerable attention from later writers, is that the great-grandson is liable for the debt if he inherits ancestral property, but not otherwise (see, for example, Mitâksharâ on Yâjnavalkya 2.51).
This matter is thoroughly discussed by Kane, HDh 3.442 ff., Heramba Chatterjee, The Law of Debt in Ancient India, pp. 99-103, and Raj Kumar Sarvadhikari, The Principles of the Hindu Law of Inheritance, pp. 103 ff.
The intent of the remarkably long, difficult, and occasionally corrupt commentary on these verses is to prove that the fourth descendant (counting the propositus) is liable for the debts (see note to 1.78). In order to force the verses to agree with the general rule that inheritance and shrâddha are co-extensive."
"A series of decisions in the courts of modern India have changed the traditional interpretation of the liabilities of the son, grandson, and great-grandson. The traditional distinction was that the son was liable to pay the principal and the interest, the grandson was liable to pay only the principal but no interest, and the great-grandson was liable only to the extent that the paternal estate came into his hands. The son and the grandson were personally liable (See Kane, HDh 3.442 ff.). The effect of Masit v. Damodar (1926) 53 I.A. 204, Peda v. Sreenivasa (1918) 41 Mad. 136 (F.B.), and Jamboo Rao v. Annappa (1941) Bom. 177 (F.B.) is that the son, grandson, and the great-grandson are liable equally for ancestral debts, but not personally liable, and that their liability is co-extensive and confined to the extent that they have joint property in their possession (see also Derrett, "Pious Obligation of a Hindu Son," 1970 KLT (J) 59, and R.K. Ranade, "Pious Obligation at Hindu Law," 52 Bom. L.R. (J) 1.)"
[Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
5. (=J I.1.5, NMS 2.5) Aus Eigennutz wünschen sich Väter Söhne, weil diese sie von Gläubigern und Schuldnern befreien.
"Asahâya uses this paragraph in support of his theory that the obligation to pay the debts of an ancestor extends to the fourth in descent. As the great-grandson has to discharge ' the debt to superior beings,' i.e. as he has to offer the customary Shrâddhas to his great-grandfather, so he is liable for debts contracted by him, which have not been repaid." [The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]
6. (=J fehlt, NMS I.6) Deshalb soll ein Sohn, sobald er geboren ist, mühsam seinen eigenen Vorteil beiseite stellen und den Vater von seiner Schuld befreien, damit er nicht in eine Hölle kommt.
" The adjective jâtena "born" may be an allusion to the shruti passage on which this doctrine is based: Taittirîyasamhitâ 6.3.10.4 jâyamâno vai brâhmanas tribhir rnavâ jâyate, "A brahmana at birth is born with a three-fold debt." This Nârada verse is well known to the commentaries and nibandhas." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
7. (=J I.1.9, NMS 2.7) Wenn ein Asket oder Agnihotrin mit Schulden stirbt, dann wird die ganze Askese und das ganze Agnihotra Besitz seines Gläubigers.
"The ample heavenly reward due to an Agnihotrî, i.e. one who has kept the three sacred fires from the date of his birth, or who has practised austerities without interruption, shall belong to the creditor, and not to the debtor. Asahâya." [The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]
8. (=J I.1.10, NMS 2.8) Ein Vater muss nicht die Schulden seines Sohnes begleichen, ein Sohn aber die Schulden seines Vaters mit Ausnahme der Schulden, die der Vater machte für Liebesdienste, aus Zorn, für Schnaps, Spiel oder Bürgschaften.
Parallelstellen: Yâjnavalkya II, 45ff.: "45. Eine Schuld welche von ungeteilten Verwandten des Haushalts wegen gemacht ist, sollen, wenn der Herr des Hauses stirbt oder auswandert, die Teilnehmer an dem Gelde bezahlen.
46. Eine Frau braucht nicht die von ihrem Mann oder Sohn gemachte Schuld zu bezahlen, noch der Vater die vom Sohn gemachte, ausgenommen wenn sie für die Familie gemacht ist. Auch braucht der Mann nicht die von der Frau gemachte schuld zu bezahlen.
47. Schulden für geistige Getränke, Liebesausschweifungen, Spiel, oder die von einer Geldstrafe oder Zoll noch übrig sind, und eben so unnötige Geschenke braucht der Sohn hier für den Vater nicht zu bezahlen." [Übersetzung: A. F. Stenzler, 1849]Vishnu VI, 33, 39:
"33.. Nor a father to pay the debt of his son.
39. And (so must he pay that debt) which was contracted by any person for the behoof of the family." [Übersetzung: J. Jolly, 1880]"A debt contracted by one blinded by love, or incensed by wrath against his own son, or in an outrageous state of intoxication, or mad with gambling, or who has become surety for another, must not be paid by the son. If, however, a debt has been contracted, even by the son, for the benefit of the household, or in a dangerous situation, it is binding on the father. Asahâya. According to Kâtyâyana, a debt contracted from love is a promise made to a dissolute woman, and a debt contracted from anger is a reward promised by an angry man to a ruffian for injuring the person or estate of his enemy. ' A debt contracted in a precarious situation,' i. e. a debt contracted in danger of life. Asahâya."
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]
9. (=J I.1.11, NMS 2.9) Der Vater muss Schulden begleichen, die der Sohn im Auftrag des Vaters oder zum Unterhalt der Großfamilie (kutumba) oder in einer schwierigen Lage (krcchra) gemacht hat.
10.(=J I.1.12, NMS 2.10) Der Haushaltsvorstand muss Ausgaben tragen, die ein Schüler, Lehrling, Sklave, eine Frau, ein Beauftragter für die Großfamilie gemacht haben.
11. (=J I.1.14, NMS 2.11) Wenn sein Vater von zu Hause weggegangen ist, braucht der Sohn die Schulden seines Vaters usw. nicht vor Ablauf von zwanzig Jahren begleichen. Analoges gilt im Falle des Vaterbruders oder des ältesten Bruders.
Parallelstellen: Vishnu VI, 27: "If he who contracted the debt should die, or become a religious ascetic, or remain abroad for twenty years, that debt shall be discharged by his sons or grandsons; " [Übersetzung: J. Jolly, 1880]
Yâjnavalkya II, 50: "Wenn der Vater ausgewandert oder gestorben oder in Laster versunken ist, soll die Schuld von den Söhnen oder Enkeln bezahlt werden. Wenn diese sie leugnen, muss sie durch Zeugen bewiesen werden." [Übersetzung: A. F. Stenzler, 1849]
12. (=J I.1.15, NMS 2.12) Solange sie leben, , muss jeder einzelne Teilhaber1 Schulden begleichen, die die anderen, dazu Bevollmächtigten gemacht haben. Wenn aber die Teilhaber1 gestorben sind, muss ein Sohn nicht für von anderen Teilhabern gemachte Schulden aufkommen.
d.h. der Teilhaber ist Solidarschuldner
1 "Teilhaber": es handelt sich in etwa um das, was im schweizerischen Obligationenrecht (OR 530-551) "einfache Gesellschaft" genannt wird.
Parallelstellen: Vishnu VI, 34: "A debt contracted by parceners shall be paid by any one of them who is present. " [Übersetzung: J. Jolly, 1880]
Yâjnavalkya II, 45: "Eine Schuld welche von ungeteilten Verwandten des Haushalts wegen gemacht ist, sollen, wenn der Herr des Hauses stirbt oder auswandert, die Teilnehmer an dem Gelde bezahlen." [Übersetzung: A. F. Stenzler, 1849]
"The subject matter under discussion in this section is the liability of a son for his father's debts. The point made in this verse is a very specific one: "joint and several" surety. When two or more parties provide a surety and agree to be held liable either all together (jointly) for the whole amount, or individually (severally) for the whole amount, one man may have to pay the entire amount. As Bhavasvâmin makes clear, if only one of the parties to the surety is alive he must pay the entire amount, but if he dies as well, then the debt falls (jointly) to the sons of the parties to this surety. In this case, each son is liable only for his father's portion of the surety, since the sons of the original parties did not enter into the joint and several suretyship.
See 1.106 and Asahâyas comment where the types of sureties are discussed and this verse is mentioned again.
The verse quoted in the commentary is unknown elsewhere:
The creditor may, as he wishes, bring his claim to any survivor, even to the best survivors, i.e. to the best of the surviving partners.
It is cited again in the commentary on 1.106 where it is attributed to Kalyâna."
[Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
13. (=J I.1.16, NMS 2.13) Eine Frau muss nicht die Schulden ihres Gatten oder ihrer Söhne begleichen, es sei denn sie hat zugestimmt (oder: ihren Anteil erhalten) oder die Schulden gemeinsam mit dem Gatten gemacht.
Parallelstellen: Vishnu VI, 31, 38
"31. A woman (shall) not (be compelled to pay) the debt of her husband or son;
38. (A debt of which payment has been previously) promised must be paid by the householder; " [Übersetzung: J. Jolly, 1880]Yâjnavalkya II, 46, 49: "46. Eine Frau braucht nicht die von ihrem Mann oder Sohn gemachte Schuld zu bezahlen, noch der Vater die vom Sohn gemachte, ausgenommen wenn sie für die Familie gemacht ist. Auch braucht der Mann nicht die von der Frau gemachte Schuld zu bezahlen." [Übersetzung: A. F. Stenzler, 1849]
14. (=J I.1.17, NMS 2.14) Eine Witwe ohne Söhne oder eine Witwe, die von ihrem sterbenden Gatten dazu verpflichtet wurde, muss die Schulden ihres Gatten begleichen, oder derjenige, der sein Erbe erhält. Wohin das Erbe geht, dorthin gehen die Schulden.
Parallelstellen: Vishnu VI, 29: "He who takes the assets of a man, leaving or not leaving male issue, must pay the sum due (by him); " [Übersetzung: J. Jolly, 1880]
Yâjnavalkya II, 51: "Die Schulden eines Erblassers welcher keinen der Verwaltung des Vermögens fähigen Sohn hat, soll bezahlen, wer das Vermögen empfängt, und eben so der welcher die Frau nimmt, oder der Sohn, wenn der Besitz nicht auf einen anderen übergegangen ist." [Übersetzung: A. F. Stenzler, 1849]
15. (=J I.1.18, NMS 2.15) Keinesfalls werden Schulden, die die Gattin gemacht hat, zu Schulden des Ehemanns, es sei denn sie wurden während einer Notlage der Männer gemacht, weil die Notwendigkeiten der Großfamilie umfangreich waren.
Parallelstellen: Vishnu VI, 32: "Nor the husband or son (to pay) the debt of a woman (who is his wife or mother);" [Übersetzung: J. Jolly, 1880]
16. (=J I.1.19, NMS 2.16) Dies gilt nicht für Frauen von Wäschern, Jägern, Hirten, Schnapsbrennern. Der Lebensunterhalt dieser Männer ist von ihren Frauen abhängig und die Großfamilie hängt von diesen Frauen ab.
Parallelstellen: Yâjnavalkya II, 48: "Die Schulden der Frauen von Hirten, Verfertigern geistiger Getränke, Schauspielern, Wäschern oder Jägern soll der Mann derselben bezahlen, weil sein Lebensunterhalt von der Frau abhängt." [Übersetzung: A. F. Stenzler, 1849]
Vishnu VI, 37: "A debt contracted by the wife of a herdsman, distiller of spirits, public dancer, washer, or hunter shall be discharged by the husband (because he is supported by his wife)." [Übersetzung: J. Jolly, 1880]
Nach Devannabhatta: Smrticandrikâ (13. Jhdt. n. Chr., zit. Dharmakos'a z. St.) ist dies keine vollständige Aufzählung, wie der Ausdruck »Der Lebensunterhalt dieser Männer ist von ihren Frauen abhängig und die Großfamilie hängt von diesen Frauen ab« zeigt: es gilt für alle Berufe, für die diese Aussage zutrifft.
17. (=J I.1.20, NMS 2.17) Wenn eine Frau, die einen Sohn hat, diesen Sohn verlässt und zu einem anderen Mann geht, dann , dann soll der Sohn ihr ganzes Erbe nehmen und sie verliert ihr Eigentum (Frauengut).
Parallelstellen: Vishnu VI, 30: "And (so must) he who has the care of the widow left by one who had no assets." [Übersetzung: J. Jolly, 1880]
Yâjnavalkya II, 51: "Die Schulden eines Erblassers welcher keinen der Verwaltung des Vermögens fähigen Sohn hat, soll bezahlen, wer das Vermögen empfängt, und eben so der welcher die Frau nimmt, oder der Sohn, wenn der Besitz nicht auf einen anderen übergegangen ist." [Übersetzung: A. F. Stenzler, 1849]
"If a widow who has a son, blinded by love forsakes her son and betakes herself to another husband, taking her Strîdhana (separate property) with her, the Strîdhana shall belong to her second husband, and not to her sons. If, however, a woman who has no separate property goes to live with another man and takes her first husband's property with her, it shall not belong to the second husband. It shall escheat to her son by the first husband. Asahâya. This interpretation has been followed in the text. It is hardly reasonable, however, to explain the term dravya, in the first instance, as denoting Strîdhana, and then again, as denoting property, inherited from the husband. It would seem that the. reading adopted by Asahâya is erroneous. The Vîramitrodaya and other compilations read rnam for dravyam, ' (the son) must pay the whole debt, if she has no property of her own.'"
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"This verse cannot be correct as it is found in ms P and printed by Jolly (as Jolly himself noted in his translation). The Newarî mss and NMS have the word rktham or riktham "inheritance." This must be the correct reading, not either of the variants, dhanam or dravyam, nor, as some nibandhas have it, rnam (see Dharmakos'a 699). This verse refers to the situation mentioned in13.12, in which the wife takes a share equal to a son's at partition. If a woman is so wanton as to take up with another man after the death of her husband, she forfeits that inheritance and it reverts to her abandoned son (see Manu 5.148-149, 158). Asahâya says that if a widow who has a son and strîdhana of her own, abandons her son and takes up with another husband, the other husband alone gets the strîdhana. But if she has nothing of her own and takes her husband's property to the other man, he does not get it; it goes to the son.
Bhavasvâmin is troubled by this verse and offers alternative interpretations. He first interprets it to refer to a case where a woman leaves her son against the son's wishes, and the man to whom she goes becomes the owner of her strîdhana. Then he shifts to an emphasis on debt and pays no attention to the word riktham. He says that if a woman is destitute, she has lost what was given to her (namely her strîdhana), and therefore she cannot be held liable for her husband's debts. Or, he says, she has given all of her wealth to her son before going to the other man, and hence he has only her person and does not obtain her wealth. In this case, any debts contracted by her are the liability of the man to whom she has gone and not the liability of the son. This interpretation is no doubt colored by the following verse (1.19). Neither interpretation is likely.
The most plausible explanation of this verse is the one I have given above.
The question remains, why is this verse found here and not in the chapter on inheritance? What does it have to do with debt? If our understanding is correct—that we are talking about a woman who has inherited under the rules of 13.12—then along with this portion of the estate she would inherit that proportion of the debt as well (see 1.14) which her new man would share in insofar as he takes her wealth. In this verse (1.17), however, the son takes all the wealth (inheritance) of the woman and is therefore solely responsible for the debts of the family. See H. Chatterjee, The Law of Debt. pp. 119-122, and Kane, HDh 3.452-454.
There is plenty of support for this interpretation to be found in modern court decisions. See, for example, Moniram v. Kerry L.R. 7 I.A. 115; Sellam v. Chinnamal 24 Mad. 441; and Nehalo v. Kishen 2 All. 150 (full bench) all of which speak of the investiture of the husband's estate in the widow regardless of her chastity after its investiture. However, Vithu v. Govind 22 Bom. 321 (full bench) and Murugayi c. Viramakali 1 Mad. 226 state that subsequent remarriage of a widow, even if legalized under the provisions of the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act (XV of 1856), will result in her forfeiting her husband's estate, which will pass to her heirs as if she were dead. The apparent irrationality of these two views—an unchaste woman may keep the estate, but a legally married woman forfeits—has been eliminated by the Supreme Court in Punithavalli v. Ramlingam 1970 S.C. 1730, where it held that the pertinent section of the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act (i.e., section 2) is in conflict with the Hindu Succession Act (Act 30 of 1956), section 14(1) which allows full ownership of her property to a woman. This decision eliminates the possibility that a woman would forfeit her share of her deceased husband's estate upon her remarriage, which is the claim of this verse."
[Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
18. (=J I.1.21, NMS 2.18) Wenn aber eine Frau samt Besitz und Kindern zu einem anderen Mann geht, dann muss dieser die Schulden ihres Gatten übernehmen oder es muss die Frau entlassen.
"Asahâya stipulates that the offspring mentioned here are minors. He states that the other man may not see any advantage in taking on the woman if her deceased husband had a lot of debts; in that case he is blameless if he abandons her with her estate intact. Only a creditor gets it. Although A seems to understand that the other man in this verse and the preceding verse is a second husband, the Smrticandrikâ (vol. 3.2 pp. 405 and 407) explains the "other" as "maternal uncles, etc."" [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
19. (=J I.1.22, NMS 2.19) Wenn jemand mit der Frau eines mittellosen und sohnlosen Verstorbenen Geschlechtsverkehr hat, dann erhält er die Schulden des Gatten (vodhr). Denn das [nämlich der Geschlechtsverkehr] ist sein Eigentum [var lect: Denn die Frau ist des Verstorbenen Eigentum.].
"According to Asahâya and Bhavasvâmin the verb upaiti refers to marriage, with all its attendant responsibilities. Jolly follows the reading of ms P: saiva tasya dhanam (which is also found in Mitâksarâ on Yâjnavalkya 2.51, PaMa 275, and the Vyavahâraprakâsha 271, but see 268) and translates, "she is considered as his property."
All other manuscripts have the neuter pronoun tat.
Whether a wife is considered property or not is a very important and controversial matter. See Derrett, "The Development of the Concept of Property in India c. A.D. 800-1800," in ZVR 64.2 (1965), 99 note 334, also in ECMHL vol. 2, p. 92 note 334. But see especially VyaMa 92 and VyaCi 501.25 (quoting Bhavadeva), where the "propertyness" of a wife is explicitly denied. The Mita on YaSmr 2.175 contradicts this, but this same verse of YaSmr prohibits the usual rights of alienation with regard to a wife or son. See also Medhâtithi on Manu 8.164, where the sale of a wife or offspring is said to be unrighteous (bahir dharmât), although it must be admitted, as Derrett points out, that there were instances of such sales. There can be no doubt that a man had certain rights (adhikârd) over his wife, and it is likely that what this verse means to say is that the man who marries such a woman assumes these rights. These limited rights were all the "wealth" that the deceased had.
A further question is whether these provisions for debt in remarriage are intended for all. It would seem so, even though widow remarriage is prohibited elsewhere (Manu 5.162). KaSmr 567 restricts these provisions to those castes— some of which are listed in NaSmr 1.16—in which it is traditional for a woman to remarry: "The debt which is contracted by purveyors of liquor, etc. who are without property or sons should be paid by the one who enjoys their wives." This is precisely the view of ViRa page 65, which gives this comment on NaSmr 1.19: idam api nâradîyavacanam kâtyâyanoktashaundikâdivishayam netavyam. This may be the view of these writers, but 1.17-20 seem clearly to allow for widow remarriage."
[Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
20. (=J I.1.23, NMS 2.20) Von diesen, nämlich
erbt derjenige die Schuld, der das Eigentum übernimmt. Der Sohn erbt die Schuld, wenn es weder jemanden gibt, der die Witwe übernimmt noch jemanden, der das Eigentum übernimmt. Der, der die Witwe übernimmt erbt die Schuld, wenn es weder jemanden gibt, der das Eigentum übernimmt, noch einen Sohn.
Parallelstellen: Yâjnavalkya II, 51: "Die Schulden eines Erblassers welcher keinen der Verwaltung des Vermögens fähigen Sohn hat, soll bezahlen, wer das Vermögen empfängt, und eben so der welcher die Frau nimmt, oder der Sohn, wenn der Besitz nicht auf einen anderen übergegangen ist." [Übersetzung: A. F. Stenzler, 1849]
"This rule contains the answer to the question : Who is liable for the debts of a deceased person, whose property has been taken by his heirs, whilst his wife through poverty has acceded to another man, and whilst his son remains both penniless and deprived of the protection of his mother? The decision is as follows. Between those three, the heir of the wealth and no other is liable for the debt. Where, however, there is no heir, owing to the want of assets, there the son is liable, if there is no widow ; and the widow's husband, if there is no son.
The respective liability of the son and of the taker of the widow depends on the circumstances of the case. If the widow is a young and handsome woman of high origin, her second husband has to discharge the debt of her first husband, according to the maxim that she is considered as his property (see above, paragraph 22). If, however, she is kept like a handmaid and receives a mere livelihood from the man who has taken her, the son is bound to pay the debt. Asahâya."
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]
21. (=J I.1.24, NMS 2.21) Wer eine Frau nimmt, die zur letzten Art von liederlicher Frau (svairinî) oder zur letzten Art von wiederverheirateten Witwen gehört, muss die Schulden, die deren Gatte gemacht hat, begleichen.
"The term uttamâ 'the first,' besides its ordinary meaning, conveys a secondary meaning. It implies that when any of the seven Svairinîs and Punarbhûs happens to be specially handsome or gifted, her second husband is bound to pay the debts contracted by the first. Asahâya. This, no doubt, is a highly artificial interpretation.
A definition of the seven Punarbhûs and Svairinîs is given further on, XII, 46-53. Asahâya refers to XII, 48 and 52. However, the meaning of the term ' the first Punarbhû ' is defined in XII, 46. The Mitâksharâ (p. 77) and Vîramitrodaya (p. 347) explain the term ' the last of the Svairinîs' as referring to one who, overwhelmed with distress, delivers herself to another man. See XII, 51, and note."
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"The list of svairinîs (wanton women) and punarbhûs (remarried women) is given at 12.45-53. Jolly has misunderstood this verse. Since he followed the reading of ms P "antimâ...uttamâ " in the first half of the verse, he apparently felt that the two words were meant to be opposites. He therefore read the verse as referring to the last svairinî and the first punarbhû.
Bhavasvâmins commentary gives a detailed explanation of why this cannot be correct. This is the rank order (from lowest to highest) given in the text:
Punarbhû
- a virgin who has only joined hands in the wedding ceremony;
- a woman who left the husband of her youth, went to another and returned to her original husband;
- a widow who has no brothers-in-law who can give her offspring (via the levirate marriage), and is instead given to a man of the same caste who is not a sapinda.
Svairinî
- a woman who leaves her husband, whether or not she has children, and lives with another man;
- a widow who rejects her brothers-in-law and out of love goes to live with another man;
- a foreigner, one purchased, or one in desperate straits who offers herself to a man as a slave;
- a raped woman who is later given to another man.
Concerning the svairinî, Bhavasvâmin says that
- for (1) the husband is still alive, so the new man should not be liable for his debts.
- In the case of (2) the brother-in-law would inherit the husband's estate and also the husband's debts; therefore the new man is not liable for those debts.
- According to Bhavasvâmin, taking up with svairinî (3) entails no debt since she is herself "property" (dhana) offered in a transaction.
- Only in (4) is the new man liable for the debts, since this man accepts the woman who is given to him by her relatives. In this last case, the presumption must be that the woman is a widow and she is forced against her will to take up with another man in order to produce offspring (but see 12.52 and note).
In the case of the punarbhû,
- (1) can be married again because the first ceremony was not completed.
- In (2) the husband is still alive and pays his own debts.
- Only in (3), where a widow is given to a man by her relatives, is that man liable for the debts of the first husband. In this last case the new man takes the widow and the estate according to the preceding verses."
[Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
22 - 34. siehe Dharmakos'a. -- Vol I,1. -- 1937. -- S. 559-562
Vgl. Schweizer Zivilgesetzbuch (ZGB):
Art. 11
A. Persönlichkeit im allgemeinen
I. Rechtsfähigkeit
1 Rechtsfähig ist jedermann.
2 Für alle Menschen besteht demgemäss in den Schranken der Rechtsordnung die gleiche Fähigkeit, Rechte und Pflichten zu habenArt. 12
Art. 13
II. Handlungsfähigkeit
1. Inhalt
Wer handlungsfähig ist, hat die Fähigkeit, durch seine Handlungen Rechte und Pflichten zu begründen.
2. Voraussetzungen
a. Im allgemeinen
Die Handlungsfähigkeit besitzt, wer mündig und urteilsfähig ist.Art. 14
Art. 16
b. Mündigkeit
Mündig ist, wer das 18. Lebensjahr vollendet hat.
d. Urteilsfähigkeit
Urteilsfähig im Sinne dieses Gesetzes ist ein jeder, dem nicht wegen seines Kindesalters oder infolge von Geisteskrankheit, Geistesschwäche, Trunkenheit oder ähnlichen Zuständen die Fähigkeit mangelt, vernunftgemäss zu handeln..
Abb.: Handlungsfähigkeit nach schweizerischem Recht
[Quelle der Abb.: Spannungsfeld Recht / Urs Saxer, Thomas Tobler, Heinz Rüfenacht. -- 3. Auflage. -- Zürich : Verlag SKV, Verlag des Schweizerischen Kaufmännischen Verbandes, 2001 Ausgabe. -- Lehrerordner. -- ISBN 3-286-32413-2. -- S. 33]
22. (=J I.1.26, NMS 2.22) Man sagt, dass von Frauen eingegangene Geschäfte außer in Notlagen nichtig sind, insbesondere Schenkung, Belegung mit einer Hypothek oder Verkauf eines Hauses oder Feldes.
"Asahâya says that any transaction undertaken by women is as if it had not been undertaken. Bhavasvâmin adds that the word visesatah "especially" means that even in times of distress a woman cannot give, pledge, or sell a house or a field. She can only do that with slaves, jewelry, gold, and cattle in times of distress."
[Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
23. (=J I.1.27 NMS 2.23) Selbst solche Geschäfte einer Frau sind wirksam, wenn der Gatte zustimmt, oder wenn - falls der Gatte nicht mehr lebt - der Sohn zustimmt, oder falls es weder Gatten und noch Sohn gibt, der König zustimmt.
Parallelstellen: s. Manu 5.148: "In childhood a female must be subject to her father, in youth to her husband, when her lord is dead to her sons; a woman must never be independent." [Übersetzung: G. Bühler, 1886]
24. siehe auch Dharmakos'a. -- Vol I,2. -- 1938. -- S. 1448f.
24. (=J I.1.28, NMS 2.24) Was der liebende Gatte seiner Frau gegeben hat, das mag diese auch nach seinem Tod aufzehren oder weggeben wie sie will, mit Ausnahme von Immobilien.
"'Immovebales', such as houses, fields, and the like. Asahâya.
This rule is frequently quoted in the medieval and modern compilations on the law of inheritance, as indicating the extent of a woman's power over her property."
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"Bhavasvâmin says that the wife's absolute estate in such gifts also applies to things given to her for the sake of ritual acts and gifts intended for her security. He further states that while she does not have absolute estate in immovables, she is entitled to enjoy them for the duration of her life. "Immovables," according to Asahâya, are houses, fields, etc. Bhavasvâmin adds gardens to the list. See 8.2."
[Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
25. (=J I.1.29, NMS 2.25) Ebenso erklärt man ein von einem Sklaven eingegangenes Geschäft für nichtig, außer es wurde von seinem Herrn angeordnet. Nicht ist ein Sklave Herr über sich selbst.
"Bhavasvâmin points out that this verse is a continuation of the preceding rule; the transactions of slaves are invalid unless they are done in an emergency. Slaves are able to dispose of property given to them out of affection, but, just as in the case of women, they cannot do so with immovables." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
26. (=J I.1.30, NMS 2.26) Auch sagt man, dass ein von einem Sohn ohne den Willen des Vaters eingegangenes Geschäft nichtig ist. Diese beiden — Sohn und Sklave — sind gleich.
"A son who has not come to a partition of the family estate with his father, continues dependent on him till the father dies. Asahâya."
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"Both Asâhâya and Bhavasvâmin state that a son whose father is still living and who is undivided is in the same situation as a slave and a wife concerning the disposal of property." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
27. siehe auch Dharmakos'a. -- Vol I,2. -- 1938. -- S. 685
27. (=J I.1.31, NMS 2.27) Auch wenn jemand nach dem Tode seines Vaters unabhängig ist, aber noch nicht das Geschäftsfähigkeitsalter erreicht hat, kann er keine Schulden eingehen. Unabhängigkeit ist aber für den ältesten Sohn erklärt. Ältestheit ist durch Fähigkeit und Alter bewirkt.
"This rule constitutes an exception to the general independence of the son after the death of his father. During the period of his minority, he is unable to contract a valid debt. Asahâya
The rule that seniority is based both on capacity and age, is certainly remarkable. It is, however, in accordance with the view enounced further on (XIII, 5) by Narada, that the management of the family property may be undertaken by the youngest brother even, if capable, because the prosperity of a family depends on ability."
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"Bhavasvâmin states the usual rule that the age of majority is sixteen. He also says that seniority for brâhmanas, etc. is determined by character, while for shûdras the determiner is age. Asahâya points out that the independence of a son on the death of his father and his concomitant ability to enter into debt are prohibited unless the son has achieved his majority. See 13.5." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
28. (=J I.1.32, NMS 2.28) Drei sind in dieser Welt unabhängig: der König, der Lehrer, und in jedem Stand in seinem Haus der Haushaltsvorstand.
" The king is independent of his subjects. A teacher is independent of his pupils. The head of a household is independent of his family and attendants. Asahâya"
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"Asahâya says that independence is a relative concept. An individual may be independent with regard to one person but dependent with regard to someone else. For example, a teacher is independent with regard to his students and a householder of any class is independent with regard to his household, but both are dependent with regard to the king." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
29. (=J I.1.33, NMS 2.29) Alles Volk ist abhängig, unabhängig ist der König. Abhängig ist der Schüler, Unabhängigkeit liegt beim Lehrer.
29. 30. These two paragraphs are intended to show the respective dependence and independence of wives, sons, householders, &c. Asahâya
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]
30. (=J I.1.34, NMS 2.30) Abhängig sind Frauen, Söhne, Sklaven samt Gesinde, dort aber ist der Haushaltsvorstand unabhängig, auf den das in der Erbfolge übergegangen ist.
"Colebrooke (Dig. II, 4, 15) has translated a different reading of paragraph 34, thus, ' A householder is not uncontrolled in regard to what has descended from an ancestor.' See, as to the distinction between inherited and self-acquired wealth: Yâjnavalkya II, 121: Denn wenn ein Land oder ein fixiertes Einkommen oder ein Vermögen von dem Grossvater erworben ist, so haben Vater und Sohn gleiches Egenthumsrecht auf dasselbe." [Übersetzung von A. F. Stenzler, 1849]"
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"1.30 is attributed to Kaundinya at VyaMa 288 and ViVya folio 4a." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
31. (=J I.1.35, NMS 2.31) Ein Kind ist bis zum achten Lebensjahr gleich einem Embryo, bis zum 16. Lebensjahr wird ein Knabe als Poganda bezeichnet.
Nach schweizerischem Rechtgelten gelten folgende Altersgrenzen:
- rechtsfähig: ab Geburt
- nicht handlungsfähig bis 7jährig
- urteilsfähig: ab 8jährig (wachsend)
- beschränkt handlungsfähig: ab 8jährig (wachsend)
- mündig: 18jährig
- handlungsfähig: 18jährig
"'Comparable to an embryo' is one who is not yet allowed to perform purificatory and other rites. From his eighth year onwards a boy may perform purificatory ceremonies and commence sacred study. He is called Poganda (a young man), because he is not yet capable of transacting legal business. Asahâya.
This rule of Nârada has become the foundation of the modern law regarding the duration of minority. A controversy has recently arisen as to whether minority terminates at the end or at the beginning of the sixteenth year. Most, if not all, Indian writers seem to agree in taking the latter view. Asahâya seems to be of the same opinion, though he does not express himself very clearly."
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"Asahâya explains that a child is incompetent with regard to matters such as purity, etc. until his eighth year. He is then competent with regard to matters of purity, study, etc., but not until his sixteenth year is he competent in matters of commerce. VyaMa 316 says that according to some the age of a poganda ends with his twentieth year. These two verses have been the basis for determining the age of majority for Hindus in modern Indian courts; see inter alia, Mothoormohun v. Sourendro, 1 Cal. 108, Shivaji v. Dattu, 12 Bom. H.C.R. 281, Reade v. Krishna 9 Mad. 391, 397. These rulings have been set aside by the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act (Act No. 32 of 1956), which defines a minor as one who has not completed the age of eighteen years. With regard to marriage the ages of the parties were first limited by statute in the Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929, which fixed the minimum ages at 15 for girls and 18 for boys. The Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment Act) of 1978 raised these ages to 18 for girls and 21 for boys, although marriages performed in violation of this provision are neither void nor voidable. The writers on dharma themselves were not in agreement about the age of majority. In contradiction with Nârada's view that majority is reached at the beginning of the sixteenth year, there are those who hold that majority begins at the end of the sixteenth year, e.g. Haradatta on GauDha 10.48, ViRa 599, and Vya Pra 263. VyaMa 316 argues that the twentieth year is the year of majority."
[Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
32. (=J I.1.36, NMS 2.32) Nachher ist er handlungsfähig und unabhängig, wenn er ohne Eltern ist. Wenn die Eltern leben, ist er abhängig, auch wenn er ein hohes Alter hat.
"He remains dependent during the lifetime of his parents, i.e. if he continues to live in union of interests with them. Asahâya"
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]
33. (=J I.1.37, NMS 2.33) Von den beiden Eltern ist der Vater besser, da der Same das Hauptsächliche ist. Wenn der Samenspender nicht mehr lebt, dann die Mutter, wenn diese nicht mehr ist, der Erstgeborene.
"Bhavasvâmin explains the superiority of the seed to the field with the analogy of placing gold into a pot (the father having the seed and the mother being the field into which it is sown; see Manu 9.33 ff.). The gold will always be of greater value than the pot which contains it. This verse appears to contradict the famous provisions of Manu 9.3 concerning the perpetual dependence of a woman." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
34. (=J I.1.38, NMS 2.34) Diese sind immer unabhängig von den anderen Abhängigen. Sie sind Herren bezüglich Anweisungen, Auflassung und Verkauf.
"'Coercion' i.e. punishment or beating; 'relinquishment' i.e. renouncing. Asahâya"
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"The independent ones being spoken of here are the king, the teacher, and the householder mentioned above (1.28). Asahâya says that anusisti, literally, "instruction" means chastising and discipline. Bhavasvâmin says that it means dictating what to do and what not to do. The three activities described here are applied to the persons who are dependent on the independent masters—for example, disciplining a son, relinquishing a daughter, and selling a slave." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
35-38. siehe Dharmakos'a. -- Vol I,1. -- 1937. -- S. 560f.
35. (=J I.1.39, NMS 2.35) Leute, die das Dharmalehrwerk kennen, dass ein Geschäft, das ein Knabe (unter 16 Jahren) oder jemand Abhängiger eingeht, nichtig ist.
"Both what a minor does, and the transactions of one grown up but dependent on others, as e.g. of a slave, are declared invalid by those conversant with law. Asahâya"
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"Bhavasvâmin reiterates that the minor is less than sixteen years of age, and Asahâya repeats the fact that even an independent child is legally incompetent (see 1.27). Slaves are always incompetent regardless of their age. Both Asahâya and Bhavasvâmin state that the s'âstra in question is the dharmashâstra. This verse is attributed to Kaundinya at VyaMa 288 and ViVya folio 4a." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
36. (=J I.1.40, NMS 2.36) Auch ist nichtig ein Geschäft, das jemand Unabhängiger eingeht, der seinen natürlichen Zustand verloren hat. Ein solches Geschäft ist nichtig, weil ein solcher nicht Herr über sich selbst (und damit nicht wirklich unabhängig) ist.
"' One who has lost the control over his actions' i.e. one whose natural disposition has been perverted, owing to possession by a demon, or to his addiction to gambling or other vicious propensities. Asahâya"
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]
37. (=J I.1.41, NMS 2.37) Den natürlichen Zustand verloren haben solche, die von Begier oder Zorn angegriffen, oder von Krankheit, Furcht oder Missgeschick betroffen, oder von Sympathie oder Hass ergriffen sind.
"Because of this abnormal behavior one cannot be independent and is therefore legally incompetent. The question is, how many characteristics of abnormal behavior are listed here? Asahâya says that there are seven, as indicated in the translation. Bhavasvâmin, however, argues that there are eight: the seven listed above, plus abhiyukta "the state of being formally accused by another in the king's court." This latter view is not found elsewhere and seems unlikely. If a man who is accused is declared to be abnormal, and this condition carries with it the status of dependence and, therefore, legal incompetence (1.36), this would place an intolerable burden on anyone accused in the king's court. Since there can be a considerable lapse of time between the accusation and the resolution of a suit, the accused would be at a personal loss in the meantime. There could even be some question about the accused's ability to enter a plea in response to an accusation in court if he were to have been declared incompetent. Bhavasvâmin recognizes his interpretation to be an alternative to that given in the translation above. The first verse (36) is attributed to Kaundinya at VyaMa 288 and ViVya folio 4a."
[Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
38. (=J I.1.42, NMS 2.38) Gültig ist ein Geschäft, das der Älteste und Vornehmste in der Familie, der im natürlichen Zustand ist, eingeht. Nicht ist ein Geschäft, das ein Abhängiger eingeht, gültig.
"Here ends the second section of the law of debt, which treats of valid and invalid transactions, Asahâya"
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"This is the summary verse of the section on valid and invalid transactions. The text refers to the head of the family since being the head of the family is determined as much by ability as by age (see 1.27 and 13.5)." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
39 - 51. siehe auch Dharmakos'a. -- Vol I,2. -- 1938. -- S. 1129a-1131b
39. (=J I.1.43, NMS 2.39) Alle Geschäfte (kriyâ) haben als Wurzel Habe (dhana). Um Habe zustande zu bringen, betrachten die Autoritäten Anstrengung als nötig. Das richtige Vorgehen dieser Anstrengung ist der Reihe nach:
"'All transactions' whether originating in virtue [dharma], interest {artha], or love [kâma]. The rule regarding the acquisition (and enjoyment) of wealth is said to be threefold:
- protection against bipeds, quadrupeds,&c.;
- increase, through agriculture, lending at interest, trading, and other modes of acquisition;
- enjoyment of terrestrial and celestial pleasures. Asahâya"
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]
Parallelstellen zu 40 bis 50: Vishnu LVIII:
1. The property of householders is of three kinds:
2. White, mottled, and black.
3. By those obsequies which a man performs with white property, he causes (his departed ancestor) to be born again as a god.
4. By performing them with mottled property, he causes him to be born as a man.
5. By performing them with black property, he causes him to be born as an animal.
6. What has been acquired by the mode of livelihood of their own caste, by members of any caste, is called 'white.'
7. What has been acquired by the mode of livelihood of the caste next below in order to their own, is called 'mottled.'
8. What has been acquired by the mode of livelihood of a caste by two or more degrees lower than their own, is called 'black.'
9. What has been inherited, friendly gifts, andthe dowry of a wife, that is called white property, for members of any caste indiscriminately.
10. What has been acquired as a bribe, as a fee (for crossing a river and the like, or for a bride, &c.), or by the sale of forbidden articles (such as lac, or salt), or as a return for a benefit conferred, is denoted 'mottled wealth.'
11. What has been acquired by servile attendance[1], by gambling, by thieving, by begging, by deceit (as if a man says that he wants a present for another and takes it himself, or by forging gold or other metals), by robbery, or by fraud (as if a man shows one thing to a purchaser and delivers another to him instead), is called 'black property.'
12. Whatever a man may do (in this world) with anything (he has, whether white, mottled, or black property) he will get his reward accordingly; both in the next world and in this." [Übersetzung: J. Jolly, 1880]
40. (=J I.1.44, NMS 2.40) Diese Habe aber ist dreifach:
Die weitere Einteilung dieser Habe ist .je siebenfach.
41. (=J I.1.45, NMS 2.41) Die siebenfache weiße Habe wird erworben durch:
Auch sein Ertrag ist ebenso beschaffen [nämlich weiß].
"'What is acquired by sacred knowledge' i.e. the gains of sacred study. What is gained by ' the practice of austerities' i. e. by one who duly performs greater and minor observances, optional and regular rites, and on whom worthy people bestow alms for that reason. What is received 'with a maiden' i.e. as her marriage portion. The fruit derived from relinquishing white property is of the same kind, i.e. it is pure likewise. Thus Asahâya"
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"Medhâtithi on Manu 4.226 cites this and the following two verses in the context of explaining the phrase svâgatair dhanair "by means of properly procured wealth." This seems to be the only place where these verses are cited. Asahâya explains that the maiden is a source of wealth because of marriage, presumably referring to dowry or bride price. Bhavasvâmin is clearer on this point and explicitly refers to bride price (s'ulka). Bhavasvâmin says that a student is a source of wealth because of his fee to the teacher. This description of the means of acquiring "white" wealth is different than that of Manu 10.115, which describes the seven lawful modes of acquiring property:
Manu Nârada
- inheritance (dâya)
- finding, or friend's gift (lâbha)
- purchase (kraya)
- conquest (jaya)
- investment (prayoga)
- work (karmayoga)
- acceptance of gifts from
good people (satpratigraha)1. knowledge (s'ruta)
2. prowess (sauryâ)
3. austerities (tapas)
4. a maiden (kanyâ)
5. a student (s'ishya)
6. a sacrificer (yâjya)
7. inheritance (anvaya)
[Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
42. (=J I.1.46, NMS 2.42) Als scheckige Habe wird die bezeichnet, die man erworben hat durch:
Aus Bhavasvâmin: Bhâsya z. St.: [S. 33]
- "kusîda = das Ausleihen von Besitz in unrechter Weisen weil man wenig gibt und sehr viel [oder: mehr] nimmt, ist dies mit Unrecht verbunden.
- Auch Ackerbau ist scheckig: denn wegen der Worte [Manu X, 84] »Das Holz mit der Eisenspitze tötet die Erde und Wesen, die in der Erde liegen« ist Ackerbau mit Unrecht verbunden, und durch die Worte [in Manu IV, 4] »er soll leben durch rta, amrta [oder durch rnrta und pramrta]« ist Ackerbau angeordnet, deswegen ist er scheckig.
- Auch Handel ist scheckig, denn einerseits ist im Handel Betrug das Höchste, andrerseits ist Handel [in Manu IV, 4] mit den Worten »oder durch satyamrta« angeordnet,
- s´ulka ist scheckig, weil man bei Truppen von tapferen Männern u. a. Lebewesen und Nichtlebewesen als Taxgebühren nimmt
- Kunsthandwerk ist scheckig, weil es einerseits Frucht eigener Anstrengung ist, und weil es andrerseits als Höchstes die Verbindung mit Betrug hat,
- anuvrtti = Dienst, dabei verhält, es sich wie bei Kunsthandwerk.
- Das, wofür man einen Gefallen erwiesen hat, ist scheckig, weil es einerseits Ursache für Hilfe war, andrerseits diese Hilfe verkaufte."
"'Commerce' the sale of merchandise. 'S'ulka' the price obtained for giving a damsel in marriage, whether the transaction be lawful or otherwise. 'Artistic performances' the art of painting or another art. 'Servile attendance' waiting upon, and paying homage to, .another man. Wealth obtained by one of these seven modes is called spotted, i.e. of a middling kind. Asahâya.
Others explain the ambiguous term S'ulka differently, as denoting tolls, or a fare for crossing a river, &c."
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"Asahâya explains tribute (s'ulka) as dowry, which can be righteous or unrighteous; Bhavasvâmin says that it is military tribute, etc. Medhâtithi on Manu 4.226 reads sevâ for s'ulka (see Medhatithi's commentary and ViSmr 58.1-12). Asahâya stipulates that the wealth acquired by brâhmanas in these seven ways is called spotted. Presumably, the wealth acquired in this way would not be spotted for a vaishya or a shûdra (see VaSmr 2.13-20)" [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
43. (=J I.1.47, NMS 2.43) Was man durch
erhält, wird deshalb als schwarze Habe bezeichnet.
"'Gambling' with dice or otherwise. 'One afflicted with pain,' one pained by an attack of disease. ' Forging' falsification, of gold, silver, or other metals. ' 'Robbery' such as theft. 'Fraud' deception. What has been acquired by one of these seven kinds is called ' black wealth' i.e. wealth of the lowest kind. Asahâya"
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"See Medhâtithi on Manu 4.226. For a discussion of the typology of thieves, see Nârada 19.2. The category of deceit includes such things as bribery (which is explicitly mentioned in ms P and commented on by Asahâya), The illegality of a bribe under Hindu law was confirmed by the High Court of Bombay in Shri Sitaram Pandit v. Shri Harihar Pandit (1910) 35 Bom 169." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
44. (=J I.1.48, NMS 2.44) Durch diese Habe mit ihren 21 Arten wickeln sich Kauf und Verkauf, Geben und Entgegennehmen, die verschiedenen Geschäfts (kriyâ) und der Genuss ab.
"From these three kinds of wealth, with their twenty-one subdivisions, spring all the various kinds of transactions, and all kinds of enjoyment. Asahâya"
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"This verse is cited in no other dharmasastra, commentary or digest." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
45. (=J I.1.49, NMS 2.45) Welcherart die Habe ist, mittels derer ein Mann irgendetwas [evtl.« im eigenen Interesse] tut, derart ist die Frucht, die er davon nach dem Tod und in diesem Leben erhält.
"The difference between this and the previous classification of the divers modes of acquisition seems to lie in this, that the one system of classification is solejl based on the respective legitimacy or illegitimacy of each mode of acquisition, whereas the diversity of caste represents the principle of classification in the other system. It should be borne in mind that an occupation, according to Indian notions, may be perfectly lawful for one caste, though it is unlawful for all others."
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]" According to Bhavasvâmin, this verse means that a man whose wealth is "white" will have "pure" results; "spotted" wealth yields "mixed" results; and "black" wealth yields sorrow." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
46. (=J I.1.50, NMS 2.46) Diese Habe ist außerdem nach der Überlieferung in Abhängigkeit von dem jeweiligen Stand zwölffach. Die Habe, die allen Ständen zusteht ist dreifach, den Rest weiß man als neunfach.
"This verse is cited only at CaVarCint 1.43. The following verses contain an analysis of the means of acquiring wealth which differs from other sources, for example Manu 10.115:" ["Manu 10.115. There are seven lawful modes of acquiring property, (viz.) inheritance, finding or friendly donation, purchase, conquest, lending at interest, the performance of work, and the acceptance of gifts from virtuous men.
10.116. Learning, mechanical arts, work for wages, service, rearing cattle, traffic, agriculture, contentment (with little), alms, and receiving interest on money, are the ten modes of subsistence (permitted to all men in times of distress).
10.117. Neither a Brahmana, nor a Kshatriya must lend (money at) interest; but at his pleasure (either of them) may, in times of distress when he requires money) for sacred purposes, lend to a very sinful man at a small interest.
10.118. A Kshatriya (king) who, in times of distress, takes even the fourth part (of the crops), is free from guilt, if he protects his subjects to the best of his ability.
10.119. His peculiar duty is conquest, and he must not turn back in danger; having protected the Vaisyas by his weapons, he may cause the legal tax to be collected;
10.120. (Viz.) from Vaisyas one-eighth as the tax on grain, one-twentieth (on the profits on gold and cattle), which amount at least to one Karshapana; Sudras, artisans, and mechanics (shall) benefit (the king) by (doing) work (for him).
10.121. If a Sudra, (unable to subsist by serving Brahmanas,) seeks a livelihood, he may serve Kshatriyas, or he may also seek to maintain himself by attending on a wealthy Vaisya." [Übersetzung: G. Bühler, 1886]][Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
47. (=J I.1.51, NMS 2.47) Die ohne Unterschied für alle Stände reine Habe ist:
"Bhavasvâmin says that inherited wealth means such things as villages, fields, and houses. Verses 1.47-62 are cited by no writer on dharmashâstra. While this is slightly surprising, it may be explained by the fact that Manu 10.74-131 provide more detail and are more likely to be cited than Nârada." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
Zu 48 - 50 siehe ausführlich:
Payer, Alois <1944 - >: Dharmashastra : Einführung und Überblick. -- 4. Sitte und Recht der Stände (varnadharma). -- URL: http://www.payer.de/dharmashastra/dharmash04.htm
Dort auch deutsche Übersetzung und Besprechung der Parallelstellen.
Parallelstellen zu 48 bis 50: Manu I, 88-91:
88. "To Brahmanas he assigned teaching and studying (the Veda), sacrificing for their own benefit and for others, giving and accepting (of alms).
89. The Kshatriya he commanded to protect the people, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study (the Veda), and to abstain from attaching himself to sensual pleasures;
90. The Vaisya to tend cattle, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study (the Veda), to trade, to lend money, and to cultivate land.
91. One occupation only the lord prescribed to the Sudra, to serve meekly even these (other) three castes." [Übersetzung: G. Bühler, 1886]Manu X, 74-80:
74. "Brahmanas who are intent on the means (of gaining union with) Brahman and firm in (discharging) their duties, shall live by duly performing the following six acts, (which are enumerated) in their (proper) order.
10.75. Teaching, studying, sacrificing for himself, sacrificing for others, making gifts and receiving them are the six acts (prescribed) for a Brahmana.
10.76. But among the six acts (ordained) for him three are his means of subsistence, (viz.) sacrificing for others, teaching, and accepting gifts from pure men.
10.77. (Passing) from the Brahmana to the Kshatriya, three acts (incumbent on the former) are forbidden, (viz.) teaching, sacrificing for others, and, thirdly, the acceptance of gifts.
10.78. The same are likewise forbidden to a Vaisya, that is a settled rule; for Manu, the lord of creatures (Pragapati), has not prescribed them for (men of) those two (castes).
10.79. To carry arms for striking and for throwing (is prescribed) for Kshatriyas as a means of subsistence; to trade, (to rear) cattle, and agriculture for Vaisyas; but their duties are liberality, the study of the Veda, and the performance of sacrifices.
10.80. Among the several occupations the most commendable are, teaching the Veda for a Brahmana, protecting (the people) for a Kshatriya, and trade for a Vaisya." [Übersetzung: G. Bühler, 1886]Yâjnavalkya II, 118-120:
"118. Was sonst einer der Erben selbst erworben, ohne Nachtheil des väterlichen Vermögens, als Geschenk von einem Freunde oder Hochzeitsgeschenk, das soll nicht den Miterben zufallen.
119. Wer durch Nachfolge erworbenes Gut, welches weggenommen war, wieder erlangt, der soll dasselbe nicht den Miterben geben; auch nicht das, was er durch seine Wissenschaft erworben hat.
120. Wenn das gemeinschaftliche Vermögen vermehrt worden, so ist gleiche Teilung vorgeschrieben. Die Verteilung unter Enkel von verschiedenen Vätern geschieht nach Verhältnis der Väter." [Übersetzung: A. F. Stenzler, 1849]Vishnu II, 4-14:
"4. Their duties are.
5. For a Brâhmana, to teach (the Veda);
6. For a Kshatriya, constant practice in arms;
7. For a Vaisya, the tending of cattle;
9. For all the twice-born, to sacrifice and to study (the Veda).
10. Again, their modes of livelihood are:
11. For a Brâhmana, to sacrifice for others and to receive alms;
12. For a Kshatriya, to protect the world (and receive due reward, in form of taxes);
13. For a Vaisya, tillage, keeping cows (and other cattle), traffic, lending money upon interest, and growing seeds;
14. For a Sûdra, all branches of art (such as painting and the other fine arts);" [Übersetzung: J. Jolly, 1880]Gautama X, 1,2,7,8, 49, 50, 56:
"1. (The lawful occupatior;s common) to (all) twice-born men are studying the (Veda), offering sacrifices (for their own sake), and giving (alms).
2. Teaching, performing sacrifices for others, and receiving alms (are) the additional (occupations) of a Brâhmana.
7. To protect all created beings is the additional (occupation) of a king,
8. And to inflict lawful punishments.
49. The additional (occupations) of a Vaisya are, agriculture, trade, tending cattle, and lending money at interest.
50. The Sûdra (belongs to) the fourth caste, which has one birth (only).
56. And serve the higher (castes)." [Übersetzung: G. Bühler, 1879]Vasishtha II, 13-20:
13. The (lawful) occupations of a Brahmana are six,
14. Studying the Veda, teaching, sacrificing for himself, sacrificing for others, giving alms, and accepting gifts.
15. (The lawful occupations) of a Kshatriya are three,
16. Studying, sacrificing for himself, and bestowing gifts;
17. And his peculiar duty is to protect the people with his weapons; let him gain his livelihood thereby.
18.(The lawful occupations) of a Vaishya are the samg (as those mentioned above, Sutra 16),
19.Besides, agriculture, trading, tending cattle, and lending money at interest,
20. To serve those (superior castes) has been fixed as the means of livelihood for a Shudra." [Übersetzung: G. Bühler, 1882]Baudhâyana 1,18,1-5:
"1. Let the king protect (his) subjects, receiving as his pay a sixth part (of their incomes or spiritual merit).
2. Brahman, forsooth, placed its majesty in the Brahmanas, together with (the duties and privileges of) studying, teaching, sacrificing for themselves, sacrificing for others, liberality, and accepting (gifts), for the protection of the Vedas ;
3. In the Kshatriyas (it placed) strength, together with (the dutiees and privileges of) studying, sacrificing, liberality, (using) weapons, and protecting the treasure (and the life of) created beings, for the growth of (good) government;
4.Sin the Vaishyas (it placed the power of work), together with (the duties of) studying, sacrificing, liberality, cultivating (the soil), trading, and tending
for the growth of (productive) labour.
5. On the .Sudras (it imposed the duty of) serving the three higher (castes)." [Übersetzung: G. Bühler, 1882]
48. (=J I.1.52, NMS 2.48) Die dem Brahmanen eigentümliche reine Habe ist dreifach: was er erhalten hat
"According to verse 1.46 there are twelve ways of acquiring wealth: three general and nine particular (in the latter case, three for each of the three twice-born castes). The mode of acquisition for the shûdra appears to be the thirteenth, but Bhavasvâmin explains that his mode of acquisition is actually a gift out of affection—one of the three common modes of acquisition. For a concise discussion of the principles involved in these verses, see L. Rocher's article, "Caste and Occupation in Classical India: the Normative Texts," in Contributions to Indian Sociology (NS) 9.1 (1975), 139-151." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
49. (=J I.1.53, NMS 2.49) Dreifach ist auch die dem Kshatriya eigentümliche reine. Habe: was er erhalten hat
50. (=J I.1.54, NMS 2.50) Auch die dem Vaishya eigentümliche reine Habe ist dreifach: was er erhalten hat
Die dem Shûdra eigentümliche reine Habe ist das, was er erhalten hat
aufgrund der Gunst [d.h. der
gnädigen Bewilligung] dieser anderen Stände.
Aus Bhavasvâmin: Bhâsya z. St.: [S, 35] "Das durch Gunst Erhaltene = nur eine Gabe aus Freundschaft, deshalb gibt es für den Shûdra keine eigentümliche Habe."
51. (=J I.1.55, NMS 2.51) Dies ist der dem Dharma entsprechende Erwerb von Habe für alle Stände. Würde man diese Zuordnung umkehren, wäre es ein dem Dharma widersprechender Erwerb, es sei denn es gäbe eine sehr schwere Notsituation.
"Here ends the section of the divers kinds of wealth in the law of debt. Asahâya"
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]
Zu 52ff. siehe ausführlich:
Payer, Alois <1944 - >: Dharmashastra : Einführung und Überblick. -- 6. Stände (varna) und Soziale Mobilität. -- URL: http://www.payer.de/dharmashastra/dharmash06.htm
Dort deutsche Übersetzung und Besprechung der Parallelstellen.
52. (=J I.1.56, NMS 2.52) In Not-Situationen wird für den Brahmanen der unmittelbar darunter liegende Lebensunterhalt, [d. h. der eines Kshatriya] angeordnet. Danach ist für ihn der Lebensunterhalt des Vaishya verkündet, niemals der niedrigste [d. h. der eines Shûdra, geschweige denn eines noch tiefer Stehenden].
Parallelstellen: Manu X, 81, 82:
81. "But a Brahmana, unable to subsist by his peculiar occupations just mentioned, may live according to the law applicable to Kshatriyas; for the latter is next to him in rank.
10.82. If it be asked, 'How shall it be, if he cannot maintain himself by either (of these occupations?' the answer is), he may adopt a Vaisya's mode of life, employing himself in agriculture and rearing cattle." [Übersetzung: G. Bühler, 1886]Vishnu II, 15: "In times of distress, each caste may follow the occupation of that next (below) to it in rank. " [Übersetzung: J. Jolly, 1880]
Yâjnavalkya III, 35; "In der Not darf ein Brâhmana durch das Gewerbe des Kshatriya oder des Vaishya seinen Unterhalt suchen, hat er die Not überwunden, so soll er sich reinigen und jenes Gewerbe wegwerfen." [Übersetzung: A. F. Stenzler, 1849]
Gautama VII, 6, 7:
"6. On failure of the (occupations lawful for a Brâhmana) he may live by the occupations of a Kshatriya.
7. On failure of those, he may live by the occupations of a Vaisya." [Übersetzung: G. Bühler, 1879]"Baudhâyana II, 4, 16, &c.:
"16. (A Brahmana) who is unable (to subsist) by teaching, sacrificing for others, or the acceptance of gifts, shall maintain himself by following the duties of Kshatriyas, because that is the next following (caste).
19. (Or) the livelihood of a Vaishya should be adopted, because that is the one following (next)." [Übersetzung: G. Bühler, 1882]"'The class next to him in rank' i.e. the Kshatriya or warrior caste. If he should find himself unable to support his family by the mode of livelihood of his own caste, he may gain his substance like a Kshatriya. At the time of a drought or famine, he may gain his substance like a Vaishya even. ' The lowest caste' i. e. the Shûdra caste. Asahâya."
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"Asahâya states that calamity refers to difficulty in supporting one's family, but Bhavasvâmin points out that the word for "calamity" in the text is expressed in the plural, therefore it cannot be limited to any one situation, but refers to any life-threatening circumstance." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
53. (=J I.1.57, NMS 2.53) Niemals soll ein Brahmane die Tätigkeit eines Niedrigen (vrshala) ausüben, nicht ein Niedriger (vrshala) die Tätigkeit eines Brahmanen. Denn diese beiden Tätigkeiten sind für diese beiden Vergehen, die zum Ausschluss aus der Standesgemeinschaft führen.
"By the term 'a vile man' a member of the Shûdra caste is referred to. The occupations of such a man, i.e. the acceptance of food from everybody and the sale of all sorts of commodities, must never be resorted to by a Brahman, even in times of distress. And so must a Shûdra avoid the occupation of a Brahman, such as wearing the sacred thread, study of the Vedas, pronouncing sacred benedictions, offering burnt-oblations, and the rest. Asahâya"
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]
54. (=J I.1.58, NMS 2.54) Die hoch stehende Tätigkeit gibt es nicht für den Shûdra und die niedrig stehende nicht für den Brahmanen, abgesehen von den beiden mittleren Tätigkeiten [d. h. der des Kshatriya und des Vaishya], denn diese beiden sind allen Ständen gemeinsam.
"'Such occupations as are either far above or far below their own rank' i.e. the occupations of a Brahman and of a Shûdra respectively. ' Those two occupations' i.e. those peculiar to the Kshatriya and Vaishya. Asahâya. hitvâ seems a faulty reading (for hite)."
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"This verse means that a brâhmana can stoop as low as the kshatriya and the vaishya livelihoods in times of distress. Asahâya says that these options are also open to a shûdra in times of extreme distress. This latter view is not a common one. Yâjnavalkya 1.120 [" Die des Shûdra, gehorsam gegen die Zwiegebornen; wenn er dadurch nicht leben kann, werde er Kaufmann, oder lebe durch verschiedene Künste, für das wohl der Zwiegeborenen sorgend." [Übersetzung von F. A. Stenzler, 1849] and Manu 10.99-100 seem to limit the shûdra's options to the livelihood of a vaishya. See L. Rocher, "Caste ...," pp. 145-146. For the consequences of a shûdra performing a penance reserved for brâhmanas, see Raghuvamsa 15.50-51 and Râmayana 7.64-67." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
55. (=J I.1.59, NMS 2.55) Wenn ein Brahmane eine Not-Situation durchstanden hat mit Habe, die er durch den Lebensunterhalt eines Kshatriya erworben hat, soll er diesen Lebensunterhalt eines Kshatriya aufgeben, nachdem er sich rituell gereinigt hat.
Parallelstellen: Yâjnavalkya III,35: "In der Not darf ein Brâhmana durch das Gewerbe des Kshatriya oder des Vaishya seinen Unterhalt suchen, hat er die Not überwunden, so soll er sich reinigen und jenes Gewerbe wegwerfen." [Übersetzung: A. F. Stenzler, 1849]
"Bhavasvâmin draws a parallel between a brâhmana who ceases to work at a kshatriya's occupation after the passing of the calamity with a man who ceases to take medicine after he is well. See YaSmr 335 ff. for a similar discussion. The penance prescribed for resorting to these occupations is the same as that for a twice-born who has never learned the Sâvitri or the Vedas, namely three krcchras (Manu 11.192-193). The krcchra penance is one in which the man eats only once in the morning for three days, and once in the evening for the next three days. During the next three days he should eat only food which is given to him unsolicited, and in the next three days he should fast."
[Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
56. (=J I.1.60, NMS 2.56) Wenn ein Brahmane für immer Gefallen findet an diesem Lebensunterhalt eines Kshatriya, dann wird von ihm verkündet, dass er ein Berufssoldat [kândaprstha] ist, der vom rechten Weg abgewichen ist. und der zu Zeremonien nicht eingeladen werden darf.
"'Ejected from society' i.e. he must not be admitted to obsequial repasts and other religious ceremonies. Asahâya"
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"The ms of Asahâyas commentary is quite corrupt here. Bhavasvâmin explains that a kândaprstha "arrow-back" is a professional soldier, and that the brâhmana becomes a kshatriya."
[Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
Parallelstellen zu 57 bis 62: Manu X, 85-90:
85. "But he who, through a want of means of subsistence, gives up the strictness with respect to his duties, may sell, in order to increase his wealth, the commodities sold by Vaisyas, making (however) the (following) exceptions.
86. He must avoid (selling) condiments of all sorts, cooked food and sesamum, stones, salt, cattle, and human (beings),
87. All dyed cloth, as well as cloth made of hemp, or flax, or wool, even though they be not dyed, fruit, roots, and (medical) herbs
88. Water, weapons, poison, meat, Soma, and perfumes of all kinds, fresh milk, honey, sour milk, clarified butter, oil, wax, sugar, Kusa-grass;
89. All beasts of the forest, animals with fangs or tusks, birds, spirituous liquor, indigo, lac, and all one-hoofed beasts.
90. But he who subsists by agriculture, may at pleasure sell unmixed sesamum grains for sacred purposes, provided he himself has grown them and has not kept them long." [Übersetzung: G. Bühler, 1886]Yâjnavalkya III, 36-39;
"36.Früchte, Edelsteine, Leinenzeug, Soma, Menschen, Kuchen, Pflanzen, Reisspeise, Zucker, Pottasche, Buttermilch, Milch, zerlassene Butter, Wasser;
37. Waffen, geistige Getränke, Wachs, Honig, Lack, Kusha, Ton, Leder, Blumen, Wollenzeug, Haare, Buttermilch mit Wasser gemischt, Gift, Erde;
38. Seidenzeug, Indigo, Salz, Fleisch, einhufige Tiere, Blei, Gemüse, frische Arzneikräuter, Asafoetida, wilde Tiere und Wohlgerüche:
39. Alles dieses darf er nie verkaufen, wenn er auch durch das Gewerbe des Vaishya seinen Unterhalt verdient. Der Pflicht wegen darf er auch Tilasamen gegen eine gleiche Menge Korn verkaufen." [Übersetzung: A. F. Stenzler, 1849]Gautama VII, 8-22:
"8. (Goods) that may not be sold by a (Brâhmana are),
9. Perfumes, substances (used for) flavouring (food), prepared food, sesamum, hempen and linen cloth, skins,
10. Garments dyed red or washed,
11. Milk and preparations from it,
12. Roots, fruits, flowers, medicines, honey, flesh, grass, water, poison,
13. Nor animals for slaughter,
14. Nor, under any circumstances, human beings, heifers, female calves, cows big with young.
15. Some (declare, that the traffic in) land, rice, barley, goats, sheep, horses, bulls, milch-cows, and draught-oxen (is) likewise (forbidden).
16. But (it is permissible) to barter,
17. One kind of substances used for flavouring others,
18. And animals (for animals).
19. Salt and prepared food (must) not (be bartered),
20. Nor sesamum.
21. But for present use an equal (quantity of) uncooked (food may be exchanged) for cooked (food).
22. But if no (other course is) possible (a Brâhmana) may support himself in any way except by (following the occupations) of a Sûdra." [Übersetzung: G. Bühler, 1879]Vasishtha II, 24-31:
"24. (A Brahma»a and a Kshatriya) who have resorted to a Vaishya's mode of living and maintain themselves by trade (shall not sell) stones, salt, hempen (cloth), silk, linen (cloth), and skins,
25. Nor any kind of dyed cloth,
26. Nor prepared food, flowers, fruit, roots, perfumes, substances (used for) flavouring (food); nor water, the juice extracted from plants; nor Soma, weapons, poison; nor flesh, nor milk, nor preparations from it, iron, tin, lac, and lead,
27. Now they quote also (the following verse): ' By (selling) flesh, lac, and salt a Brahmana at once becomes an outcast; by selling milk he becomes (equal to) a Shudra. after three days.'
28. Among tame animals those with uncloven hoofs, and those that have an abundance of hair, (must not be sold), nor any wild animals, (nor) birds, nor beasts that have tusks (or fangs).
29. Among the various kinds of grain they mention sesamum (as forbidden).
30. Now they quote also (the following verse): 'If he applies sesamum to any other purpose, but food, anointing, and charitable gifts, he will be born again as a worm and, together with his ancestors, be plunged into his own ordure.'
31. Or, at pleasure, they may sell (sesamum), if the< themselves have produced it by tillage." [Übersetzung: G. Bühler, 1882]Âpastamba I, 7, 20, 11 ff.:
"11. In times of distress he may trade in lawful merchandise, avoiding the following (kinds), that are forbidden
12. (Particularly) men, condiments and liquids, colours, perfumes, food, skins, heifers, substances used for glueing (such as lac), water, young cornstalks, substances from which spirituous liquor may be extracted, red and black pepper, corn, flesh, arms, and the hope of rewards for meritorious deeds.
13. Among (the various kinds of) grain he shall especially not sell sesamum or rice (except he have grown them himself).
14. The exchange of the one of these (abovementioned goods) for the other is likewise unlawful.
15. But food (may be exchaned) for food, and slaves for slaves, and condiments for condiments, and perfumes for perfumes, and learning for learning.
16. Let him traffic with lawful merchandise which he has not bought," [Übersetzung: G. Bühler, 1879]
57. (=J I.1.61, NMS 2.57) Wenn ein Brahmane den Lebensunterhalt eines Vaishya führt, darf er nicht verkaufen:
"'Pungent condiments' such as sugar. 'Liquids' such as clarified butter and oil. Asahâya."
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]
58. (=J I.1.62, NMS 2.58)
"Asahâya explains the term Soma,' the juice of the Soma plant' which is offered to the gods at a sacrifice, as denoting sacrificial implements generally; 'men' i.e. servants; 'plants' i.e. shrubs, creeping plants, and others. Asahâya."
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]
59. (=J I.1.63, NMS 2.59)
"'Blankets' i.e. what is made of wool. 'Animals whose foot is not cloven,' i.e. whole-hoofed animals, such as horses. ' Dregs' i. e. the deposit of oil. 'Vegetables' i.e. fresh pot-herbs. Asahâya."
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]
60. (=J I.1.64, NMS 2.60) Ein Brahmane darf aber verkaufen:
außer (d. h. nicht, auch wenn sie zur Gattung trockenes Holz oder Gräser gehören):
1"Rohrkolben (erakâ) (Typha angustifolia)"
Abb.: Typha angustifolia [Bildquelle: http://caliban.mpiz-koeln.mpg.de/~stueber/lindman/494.jpg. -- Zugriff am 2003-11-26]
"'Fragrant substances' such as the fragrant root of the plant Andropogon Muricatus, Bâlaka, the root of the Musta grass, and others. Asahâya.
If the reading of a single MS. be followed, the sale of the articles enumerated in pars. 64 and 65 is also prohibited for a Brahman. Several of these articles are included among those substances the sale of which is prohibited by other legislators. See Manu X, 86-89; Yâjnvalkya III, 36-39. However, the reading translated above is distinctly supported by the Commentary of Asahâya, and by the analogous rules of Vasishtha."
[The minor law-books / translated by Julius Jolly. -- Delhi [u.a.] : Banarsidass
1. Nârada, Brihaspati. -- Reprint [der Ausgabe] Oxford, 1889. -- 1965. -- XXIV, 396 S. -- (Sacred books of the East series ; 33). -- z. St.]"The reading of ms P (kus'âd) for tushâd is supported by Manu 10.88, which explicitly forbids the sale of kus'a grass by a brâhmana." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
61. (=J I.1.65, NMS 2.61) Er darf verkaufen:
1"Jujuba (Zizyphus jujuba)"
Abb.: Zizyphus jujuba
[Bildquelle: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/indian_jujube.html. -- Zugriff am 2003-11-26]
"Lateinischer Name: Zizyphus jujuba Indische Namen:
- Bengali: Kul
- Hindi: Ber
- Marathi: Bor
- Malayalam: Ilantai
- Sanskrit: Badara, Badari
- Telugu: Reegu
- Tamil: Elandai
Familie: Rhamnaceae
Der nusstragende Lotus, so die arabische Bedeutung des Wortes »zizouf«, ist ein kleinwüchsiger Baum mit sehr dünnen, elastischen, im Zick-Zack verlaufenden Zweigen. Die Griechen benutzten die Bezeichnung Zizyphon, von der sich auch das lateinische Wort ableitet, als Name für die essbaren, pflaumenartigen Früchte der verwandten Art Zizyphus lotus, die im Mittelmeergebiet vorkommt.Die kleinen Blätter der Jujube sind oval, dunkelgrün an ihrer Oberseite und von dünnen, weißlichen Flaumhaaren an der Unterseite bewachsen. Die an jedem Blattansatz paarweise wachsenden Dornen machen es schwierig, sich aus dem Geäst wieder zu befreien. Durch die kahl wirkenden Zweige kann man den Stamm mit seiner zerfurchten, dunkelgrauen Rinde sehen.
Ein Jujube-Hain am Fuße des Himalaya wurde von zwei berühmten Heiligen, Nara und Narayana, letzterer eine Inkarnation des Vishnu, als Klause ausgewählt. Dieser Ort, Badrinath, ist ein heiliges Pilgerziel für Hindus.
In Nord-Indien, besonders im Punjab, ist der Ber-Baum Teil der Folklore. So gilt es Unglück verheißend, eine Jujube im Hausgarten zu pflanzen, denn sie würde Zwietracht unter den Bewohnern säen. Andererseits soll der Dukhbhanjani im Goldenen Tempel von Amritsar, eine Jujube, die von den Sikhs verehrt wird, die Sorgen der Betenden vertreiben.
In Indien begann der kommerzielle Anbau des Baumes zu moslemischer Zeit, als es einem Züchter gelang, eine Hybridsorte der Frucht zu finden, für die er vom Raja Raghaji Bhonsale II von Ahmadnagar mit einem Inam, einer staatlichen Prämie, ausgezeichnet wurde. Die Frucht ist reich an Vitamin C und wird roh gegessen, getrocknet oder zu Fruchtsaft verarbeitet. Die eierförmigen Beeren sind bei den Kultursorten gelbgrün und länglich, bei wilden Pflanzen meist rot und klein. Sie besitzen einen einzelnen, großen Steinkern und eine dünne, zähe Schale.
Die Jujube eignet sich aber auch als Brennholzlieferant und Viehfutter, besonders unter schwierigen Bedingungen, da sie Trockenheit und Frost gut erträgt."
2 "Inguda (Terminalia catappa)"
Abb.: Terminalia catappa
[Bildquelle: http://www.vodou.org/images/herbs/badamier_du_malabar.jpg. -- Zugriff am 2003-11-26]
"Both Asahâya and Bhavasvâmin explain avikrta "natural" to mean that it has not been dyed any other color." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
62. (=J I.1.66, NMS 2.62) Sesam1 darf für eine gleichwertige Menge Getreide verkauft werden:
1 "Sesam"
Abb.: Sesamum indicum"Lateinischer Name: Sesamum indicum
Indische Namen:
- Bengali: Til
- Gujarati: Tal
- Hindi: Til
- Kannada: Ellu
- Malayalam: Karuthellu
- Marathi: Til
- Sanskrit: Tila
- Telugu: Nuvvulu
Familie: Pedaliaceae
Sesam, eine einjährige, hochwachsende Blütenpflanze, wurde offenbar schon vor fünf Jahrtausenden von den Angehörigen der Industal-Kultur angebaut. In Harappa, dem Zentrum der geheimnisvollen Hochkultur, fanden Archäologen verklumpte Reste der Samen. In Mesopotamien war die Pflanze damals auch bereits ein wichtiger Öl- und Nahrungslieferant, und wurde daher von den Königen exakt verwaltet.
Der Name leitet sich vom griechischen Wort Sesamos ab, das bei Hippocrates erstmals aufscheint und auf arabische Quellen zurückgeht. Das indische Stammwort »tila« bezeichnet ein kleines Körnchen, denn in den zweikammrigen Schoten der Pflanze finden sich hunderte flache, tropfenförmige Samenkörner, jedes von einer dünnen gelblichen bis schwarzen Hülle umgeben und innen kremig weiß. In der Natur platzen die Schoten explosionsartig und verstreuen ihr Saatgut, ein Gleichnis, das sich im »Sesam öffne Dich« von Tausendundeine Nacht erhalten hat.
Die nussartig schmeckenden Samen werden gebacken oder geröstet zu Brot, Gebäck oder Gajjak, einer Süßigkeit aus Sesam und Zucker, verarbeitet oder vermahlen und gepresst. Denn das Sesamöl ist besonders gesund und haltbar.
Im klassischen Indien war Sesam die einzige Ölpflanze der Arier. Die hinduistische Überlieferung berichtet, dass die Pflanze aus Vishnus Schweißtropfen, die zur Erde fielen, gekeimt sei. In den Vedas wird die Nase häufiger als Tilapushpa, als Knospe der Sesam-Pflanze bezeichnet. Die Blüten stehen einzeln in den Achsen der ovalen, deutlich geäderten Blätter. Deren Stroh diente, laut Atharva Veda, der Düngung von Feldern und Obstbäumen."
[Quelle:Gandhi, Maneka <1956 - >: Brahmas Haar : die Mythologie der indischen Pflanzenwelt / Maneka Gandhi. In Zusammenarbeit mit Yasmin Singh. Ill. von Mona Bhandari. -- Frankfurt a.M. : Brandes und Apsel, 1995. -- 173 S. : Ill. -- Originaltitel: Brahma's hair (1989). -- ISBN: 3-86099-438-7. -- S. 129f.]
63. (=J I.1.67, NMS 2.63) Ein Brahmane, der vom rechten Pfad abgekommen ist, indem er verkauft, was er nicht verkaufen darf, muss vom König durch eine sehr große Strafe wieder auf den rechten Pfad gebracht werden.
"Bhavasvâmin says that the king should reestablish the brâhmana in his own dharma. He also specifies that strict punishment means the kind of punishment that would deter him from selling it again." [Nârada: The Nâradasmrti / critical edition and translation Richard W. Lariviere. -- Delhi : Banarsidass, ©2003. -- 554 S. -- (Sources of ancient Indian law). -- ISBN 81-208-1804-0. -- z. St.]
Zu Kapitel 5,2: Narasmrti I.64 - 126
