Mahavamsa : die große Chronik Sri Lankas

12. Kapitel 12: Die Bekehrung verschiedener Länder


verfasst von Mahanama

übersetzt und erläutert von Alois Payer

mailto: payer@hdm-stuttgart.de


Zitierweise / cite as:

Mahanama <6. Jhdt n. Chr.>: Mahavamsa : die große Chronik Sri Lankas / übersetzt und erläutert von Alois Payer. -- 12. Kapitel 12: Die Bekehrung verschiedener Länder -- Fassung vom 2006-06-07. -- URL: http://www.payer.de/mahavamsa/chronik12.htm. -- [Stichwort].

Erstmals publiziert:  2001-05-30

Überarbeitungen: 2006-06-07 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-06-05 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-06-02 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-05-29 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-05-27 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-05-15 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-05-08 [Ergänzungen]; 2006-04-21 [Umstellung auf Unicode!]; 2006-03-01 [Einfügen des Palitexts]; 2001-06-21 [erweitert]; 2001-07-10 [Ergänzungen]

Anlass: Lehrveranstaltungen, Sommersemester 2001, 2006

©opyright: Dieser Text steht der Allgemeinheit zur Verfügung. Eine Verwertung in Publikationen, die über übliche Zitate hinausgeht, bedarf der ausdrücklichen Genehmigung des Übersetzers.

Dieser Text ist Teil der Abteilung Buddhismus von Tüpfli's Global Village Library


0. Übersicht



Pālitext: http://www.tipitaka.org/tipitaka/e0703n/e0703n-frm.html.-- Zugriff am 2001-06-06

Falls Sie die diakritischen Zeichen nicht dargestellt bekommen, installieren Sie eine Schrift mit Diakritika wie z.B. Tahoma.

Die Zahlreichen Zitate aus Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. sind ein Tribut an dieses großartige Werk. Das Gesamtwerk ist online zugänglich unter: http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/dic_idx.html. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-08.


Dvādasama pariccheda

Nānādesapasādo


Alle Verse mit Ausnahme des Schlussverses sind im Versmaß vatta = siloka = Śloka abgefasst.

Das metrische Schema ist:

 ̽  ̽  ̽  ̽ ˘ˉˉˉ
 ̽  ̽  ̽  ̽ ˘ˉ˘ˉ

 ̽  ̽  ̽  ̽ ˘ˉˉˉ
 ̽  ̽  ̽  ̽ ˘ˉ˘ˉ

Ausführlich zu Vatta im Pāli siehe:

Warder, A. K. (Anthony Kennedy) <1924 - >: Pali metre : a contribution to the history of Indian literature. -- London : Luzac, 1967. --  XIII, 252 S. -- S. 172 - 201.


1. Moggaliputta's Aussendung der Missionare


1. Thero Moggaliputto so,
jinasāsanajotako;
niṭṭhāpetvāna saṃgītiṃ,
pekkhamāno anāgataṃ.
2. Sāsanassa patiṭṭhānaṃ,
paccantesu apekkhiya;
pesesi Kattike māse,
te te there tahiṃ tahiṃ.

1./2.  Als der Thera Moggaliputta1, die Leuchte in der Lehre des Eroberers, das dritte Konzil2 beendet hatte3, blickte er auf die Zukunft und sandte im Monat Kattika4 verschiedene Thera's an verschiedene Orte, um in Nachbarländern die buddhistische Religion zu gründen.

Kommentar:

1 Moggaliputta: Moggaliputta-Tissa, Vorsitzender des 3. Konzils

"Moggaliputta Tissa Thera

President of the Third Council. In his penultimate birth he was a Brahmā, called Tissa, and consented to be born in the world of men at the urgent request of the arahants who held the Second Council, in order to prevent the downfall of the Buddha's religion. He was born in the home of the brahmin Moggali of Pātaliputta. Siggava and Candavajji had been entrusted with the task of converting him. From the time of Tissa's birth, therefore, for seven years, Siggava went daily to the house of Moggali, but not even one word of welcome did he receive. In the eighth year someone said to him, "Go further on." As he went out he met Moggali, and, on being asked whether he had received anything at his house, he said he had. Moggali inquired at home and the next day charged Siggava with lying. But hearing Siggava's explanation, he was greatly pleased and thereafter constantly offered Siggava hospitality at his house. One day, young Tissa, who was thoroughly proficient in the Vedas, was much annoyed at finding Siggava occupying his seat and spoke to him harshly. But Siggava started to talk to him and asked him a question from the Cittayamaka. Tissa could not answer it, and, in order to learn the Buddha's teachings, he entered the Order under Siggava, becoming a sotāpanna soon after. Siggava instructed him in the Vinaya and Candavajji in the Sutta and Abhidhamma Pitakas. In due course he attained arahantship and became the acknowledged leader of the monks at Pātaliputta (Mhv.v.95ff., 131ff.; Dpv.v.55ff.; Sp.i.35 41).

At the festival of dedication of the Asokārāma and the other vihāras built by Asoka, Moggaliputta Tissa informed Asoka, in answer to a question, that one becomes a kinsman of the Buddha's religion only by letting one's son or daughter enter the Order. Acting on this suggestion, Asoka had both his children ordained. Moggaliputta acted as Mahinda's upajjhāya (Mhv.v.191ff.; Sp.i.50f). Later, because of the great gains which accrued to the monks through Asoka's patronage of the Buddha's religion, the Order became corrupt, and Moggaliputta committed the monks to the charge of Mahinda, and, for seven years, lived in solitary retreat on the Ahogangā pabbata. From there Asoka sent for him to solve his doubts as to what measure of sin belonged to him owing to the murder of the monks by his minister. But Moggaliputta would not come until persuaded that his services were needed to befriend the religion. He traveled by boat to Pātaliputta, and was met at the landing place by the king who helped him out by supporting him on his arm.

According to Sp.i.58, the king had a dream on the preceding night which the soothsayers interpreted to mean that a great ascetic (samananāga) would touch his right hand. As the Thera touched the king's hand the attendants were about to kill him, for to do this was a crime punishable by death. The king, however, restrained them. The Thera took the king's hand as a sign that he accepted him as pupil.

The king, having led him to Rativaddhana Park, begged him to perform a miracle. This the Thera consented to do and made the earth quake in a single region. To convince the king that the murder of the monks involved no guilt for himself, the Thera preached to him the Tittira Jātaka. Within a week, with the aid of two yakkhas, the king had all the monks gathered together and held an assembly at the Asokārāma. In the presence of Moggaliputta, Asoka questioned the monks on their various doctrines, and all those holding heretical views were expelled from the Order, Moggaliputta decreeing that the Vibhajjavāda alone contained the teaching of the Buddha. Later, in association with one thousand arahants, Moggaliputta held the Third Council at Asokārāma, with himself as President, and compiled the Kathāvatthuppakarana, in refutation of false views. This was in the seventeenth year of Asoka's reign and Moggaliputta was seventy two years old (Mhv.v.231 81; Dpv.vii.16ff., 39ff.; Sp.i.57ff). At the conclusion of the Council in nine months, Moggaliputta made arrangements, in the month of Kattika, for monks to go to the countries adjacent to India for the propagation of the religion (For a list of these, see Mhv.xii.1ff.; Dpv.viii.1ff.; Sp.i.63ff). Later, when the request came from Ceylon for a branch of the Bodhi tree, Asoka consulted the Elder as to how this could be carried out, and Moggaliputta told him of the five resolves made by the Buddha on his death bed (Mhv.xviii.21ff).

The Dīpavamsa says (Dpv. 68ff., 82, 94, 96, 100f. 107f.; also vii.23ff ) that Moggaliputta Tissa's ordination was in the second year of Candagutta's reign, when Siggava was sixty four years old. Candagutta reigned for twenty four years, and was followed by Bindusāra, who reigned for thirty seven years, and he was succeeded by Asoka. In the sixth year of Asoka's reign, Moggaliputta was sixty-six years old, and it was then that he ordained Mahinda. He was eighty years old at the time of his death and had been leader of the Order for sixty eight years. He died in the twenty sixth year of Asoka's reign."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s.v.]

2 dritte Konzil in Pāṭaliputta (heute Patna). Siehe Mahāvaṃsa Kapitel 5

3 nach Theravādachronologie 308 v. Chr.

4 Kattika: 8. indischer Monat (September/Oktober bzw. Oktober/November), d.h. nach Ende der Regenzeit

"Kārtika (Hindi: कातिक kātik or कार्तिक kārtik, Bangla: কার্ত্তিক Kārtik), is a month of the Hindu and Bengali calendars. In India's national civil calendar, Kaartika is the eighth month of the year, beginning on 23 October and ending on 21 November. In the Bikram Sambat in use in Nepal, Kartik is the seventh month, beginning on 18 October and lasting until 15 November.

In lunar religious calendars, Kaartik may begin on either the new moon or the full moon around the same time of year, and is usually the eighth month of the year. However, in Gujarat, the year begins on Divali, so Kaartik is the first month of the year for Gujaratis.

In solar religious calendars, Kaartik begins with the Sun's entry into Libra, and is usually the seventh month of the year."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartika. -- Zugriff am 2006-06-01]

3. Theraṃ Kasmīragandhāraṃ,
Majjhantikam apesayi;
apesayī Mahādeva-
ttheraṃ Mahisamaṇḍalaṃ.
4. Vanavāsaṃ apesayi,
theraṃ Rakkhitanāmakaṃ;
tathāparantakaṃ Yona-
dhammarakkhitanāmakaṃ.
5. Mahāraṭṭhaṃ Mahādhamma-
rakkhitattheranāmakaṃ;
Mahārakkhitatheraṃ taṃ,
Yonalokam apesayi.
6. Pesesi Majjhimaṃ theraṃ,
Himavantapadesakaṃ;
Suvaṇṇabhūmiṃ there dve,
Soṇam Uttaram eva ca.
7. Mahāmahindattheraṃ taṃ,
theraṃ Iṭṭiyam Uttiyaṃ;
Sambalaṃ Bhaddasālañ ca,
sake saddhivihārike.
8. Laṃkādīpe manuññamhi,
manuññaṃ jinasāsanaṃ;
patiṭṭhāpetha tumhe ti,
pañca there apesayi.

3. - 8.

Nach Kasmīra2 und Gandhara3 entsandte er Majjhantika1. Nach Mahisamaṇḍala5 entsandte er den Thera Mahādeva4. Nach Vanavāsa7 entsandte er den Thera Rakkhita6, nach Aparantaka10 den Griechen8 Dhammarakkhita9. Nach Mahāraṭṭha11 entsandte er den Thera Mahādhammarakkhita12, in die Welt der Yonas8 entsandte er der Thera Mahārakkhita13. Er entsandte den Thera Majjhima15 in das Himalajagebiet14. Nach Suvaṇṇabhūmi16 entsandte er die beiden Theras Soṇa17 und Uttara18. Den Thera Mahāmahinda19, den Thera Iṭṭiya20, Uttiya21, Sambala22 und Bhaddasāla23, seine eigenen Schüler25, diese fünf24 Theras entsandte er mit den Worten: "Gründet auf der erfreulichen Insel Laṅkā die erfreuliche Religion des Eroberers!"

Kommentar:


Abb.: Die Bestimmungsländer der Missionare Moggaliputta's (©MS Encarta)

Diese und die folgenden Karten geben nur ungefähr die vermutete Lage der genannten Gebiete an. Grenzziehungen sind nicht möglich. 

1 Majjhantika: siehe unten zu Vers 12ff.

2 Kasmīra: heute Kāśmīr, siehe unten zu Vers 9ff.

3 Gandhāra: im heutigen Ostafghanistan und Nordwestpakistan, siehe unten zu Vers 9ff.

4 Mahādeva: siehe unten zu Vers 29

5 Mahisamaṇḍala: vermutlich heutige Gegend um Mysore, siehe unten zu Vers 29.

6 Rakkhita: siehe unten zu Vers 31

7 Vanavāsa: vermutlich heutiges Nord-Kanara, siehe unten zu Vers 31

8 Yona: vermutlich baktrischer Grieche; siehe unten zu Vers 39

9 Dhammarakkhita: siehe unten zu Vers 34

10 Aparantaka: vermutlich heutiges Gujarāt, siehe unten zu Vers 34

11 Mahāraṭṭha: vermutlich heutiges Mahārāṣṭra, siehe unten zu Vers 37

12 Mahādhammarakkhita: siehe unten zu Vers 37

13 Mahārakkhita: siehe unten zu Vers 39

14 Himālaja: siehe unten zu Vers 41

15 Majjhima: : siehe unten zu Vers 41

16 Suvaṇṇabhūmi: vermutlich heutiger Mon-Staat und andere Küstengebiete Myanmars oder ein Gebiet des heutigen Bengalen oder das Gebiet am Son-Fluss in Zentralindien, siehe unten zu Vers 44f.

17 Soṇa: siehe unten zu Vers 44f.

18 Uttara: siehe unten zu Vers 44f.

19 Mahinda

"Mahinda Thera.

Son of Asoka and brother of Sanghamittā. He was fourteen at the time of the coronation of his father and was ordained at the age of twenty, his preceptor being Moggaliputtatissa. The ordination was performed by Mahādeva, while Majjhantika recited the kammavācā. Mahinda became an arahant on the day of his ordination (Mhv.v.204ff.; Dpv.v.24 f ; Sp.i.51). He spent three years in study of the Doctrine under his preceptor, and, later, when the latter retired to Ahogangā, he left his one thousand disciples for seven years under the care of Mahinda (Mhv.v.233; Sp.i.52). When the Third Council was held, Mahinda had been for twelve years a monk and was charged with the mission of converting Ceylon. But he delayed for six months, until Devānampiyatissa became king. He then went to Dakkhināgiri and from there to his birthplace, Vedisagiri, staying in Vedisagiri vihāra and visiting his mother, the queen Devī. Still one more month he tarried, teaching the Doctrine to Bhanduka, and then, on the full moon day of Jettha, at the request of Sakka, he went, in company with

  • Itthiya,
  • Uttiya,
  • Sambala,
  • Bhaddasāla,
  • Sumanasāmanera and
  • Bhanduka,

to Ceylon, where he converted Devānampiyatissa by preaching to him the Cūlahatthipadopama Sutta. Later, on the same day, he preached the Samacitta Sutta. The next day, at the request of the king, he visited Anurādhapura, travelling through the air and alighting on the site of the (later) Pathamacetiya. After a meal at the palace he preached the Petavatthu, the Vimānavatthu and the Sacca Samyutta, and Anulā and her five hundred companions became sotāpannas. Later, in the elephant stables, he preached the Devadūta Sutta to the assembled people, and, in the evening, the Bālapandita Sutta, in Nandanavana. The night he spent in Mahāmeghavana, and on the next day the king gave the park to Mahinda, on behalf of the Order.

Mahinda pointed out to the king various spots destined to be connected with the growth of the sāsana in Ceylon, offering flowers at the same, and at the site of the (later) Mahā Thūpa, he described the visits of the Four Buddhas of this kappa to Ceylon. On the fourth day he preached the Anamatagga Sutta in Nandanavana and helped the king in defining the boundaries of what later became the Mahāvihāra. On the fifth day he preached the Khajjanīya Sutta, on the sixth the Gomayapindī sutta, and on the seventh the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta.

The pāsāda first built for the residence of Mahinda was called Kālapāsāda parivena. Other buildings associated with him were the Sunhātaparivena, the Dīghacanka parivena, the Phalagga parivena, the Therāpassaya parivena, the Marugana-parivena, and the Dīghasandasenāpati-parivena.

Twenty six days Mahinda stayed in Mahāmeghavana, and on the thirteenth day of the bright half of āsālha, after having preached the Mahāppamāda Sutta, he went to Missakapabbata, to spend the vassa. The king had sixty eight rock cells built in the mountain and gave them to the theras on the full moon day. On the same day Mahinda ordained sixty two monks, who attained arahantship, at Tumbarumālaka. After the full moon day of Kattika, at the conclusion of the pavārana ceremony, Mahinda held a consultation with Devānampiyatissa and sent Sumanasāmanera to Pātaliputta to bring the relics of the Buddha from Dhammāsoka and other relics from Sakka. These relics were brought and placed on the Missakapabbata, which from then onwards was called Cetiyegiri. The collar bone from among the relics was deposited in the Thūpārāma (q.v.), which was built for the purpose. It was at Mahinda's suggestion that Devānampiyatissa sent an embassy headed by Mahāarittha to Asoka, with a request that Sanghamittā should come to Ceylon with a branch of the Bodhi tree. The request was granted, and Sanghamittā arrived in Ceylon with the branch. Devānampiyatissa, during the later part of his reign, acting on the advice of Mahinda, built numerous vihāras, each one yojana from the other; among them were Issarasamanaka and Vessagiri.

Mahinda is said to have taught the Commentaries to the Tipitaka in the Singhalese language, after translating them from the Pāli (Cv.xxxvii.228ff).

The Samantapāsādikā (pp. 102ff ) mentions a recital held by Mahinda under the presidency of Mahāarittha.

Mahinda continued to live for the first eight years of the reign of Uttiya, who succeeded Devānampiyatissa. Then, at the age of sixty, he died on the eighth day of the bright half of Assayuja, in Cetiyagiri, where he was spending the rainy season. His body was brought in procession, with every splendor and honour, to the Mahāvihāra and placed in the Pañhambamālaka, where homage was paid to it for a whole week. It was then burnt on a pyre of fragrant wood on the east of the Therānambandhamālaka, to the left of the site of the Mahā Thūpa. A cetiya was erected on that spot over half the remains, the other half being distributed in thūpas built on Cetiyagiri and elsewhere. The place of cremation was called Isibhūmangana, and there for many centuries were cremated the remains of holy men who lived within a distance of three yojanas.( For details of Mahinda see Mhv.xiii. xx; Dpv.vii.57f., xii., xiii., iv.: xv.; Sp.i.61, 69ff., 79ff., 83ff., 90ff., 103, etc.)

Later, King Sirimeghavanip had a life size image of Mahinda made of gold; this he took to the Ambatthalacetiya. For eight days a festival was held in its honour; on the ninth day the image was taken from Ambatthala, carried by the king himself at the head of a large and splendid procession, and placed for three days in Sotthiyākara vihāra. On the twelfth day it was taken with all splendours to Anurādhapura, to the Mahāvihāra, where it was left for three months in the courtyard of the Bodhi tree. From there it was removed to the inner city and deposited in a magnificent image house to the south east of the palace. An endowment was set up for the annual performance of ceremonies in honour of the image, and this custom was continued for many centuries. The image was brought from the inner town to the (Mahā)vihāra on the pavārana day, and every year an offering was made on the thirteenth day (Cv.xxxvii.66ff).

Dhātusena had the image brought to the place where Mahinda's body was cremated and there held a great festival (Cv.xxxviii.58), while Aggabodhi I. set up the image on the banks of the tank called Mahindatata, and ensured that the special task of carrying the image to the dyke of the tank was the task of the Taracchas. Cv.xlii.30."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

20 Iṭṭhiya

"Iṭṭhiya

One of the monks who accompanied Mahinda on his visit to Ceylon (Mhv.xii.7; Dpv.xii.12; Sp.i.71; Mbv.116; DhsA.32).  

King Sirimeghavanna had an image of Itthiya made and placed beside that of Mahinda and his companions in the vihāra which he built in the south-eastern corner of his palace. He inaugurated a year's festival in honour of these images (Cv.xxxvii.vv.87ff) (v.l. Ittiya, Iddhiya)."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

21 Uttiya

"Uttiya.

One of the theras who accompanied Mahinda on his mission to Ceylon (Mhv.xii.8; Dpv.xii.12; Sp.i.70; Mbv.116). King Sirimeghavanna had an image of Uttiya made and placed in the image house which he built at the south-eastern corner of his palace. Cv.xxxvii.87."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

22 Sambala

"Sambala.

One of the monks who accompanied Mahinda to Ceylon (Mhv.xii.7; Dpv.xii.12, 38; Sp.i.62). Sirimeghavanna had an image made of him for purposes of worship. Cv.xxxvii.87."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

23 Bhaddasāla

"Bhaddasāla Thera.

An arahant. He accompanied Mahinda to Ceylon (Mhv.xii.7; Dpv.xii. 12, 38; Sp.i. 62, 70). Sirimeghavanna made an image of him and placed it in a shrine near his palace. v.1. Bhaddanāma. Cv.xxxvii.87."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

24 fünf Theras: dass nach Lankā fünf Mönche gesandt werden, ist sehr wichtig, da dies die Mindestanzahl ist, um Mönchsweihen (upasampadā) durchzuführen. 

25 Schüler (saddhivihārika): Bezeichnung für die Schüler eines Upajjhāya.

"Saddhivihārika

The 'disciple' of an Upajjhāya (preceptor). He may be a Sāmanera or a Bhikkhu living with him for training. He known as Saddhivihārika, He receives preaching in the Dhamma and training in the Vinaya and other monastic rules necessary for the monk-life. (Mv. p. 48). It is, therefore, essential that anyone seeking admission into the Buddhist Order should first look out for an Upajjhāya. He should approach an 'able' and 'competent' monk; and after saluting he should request him to become his Upajjhaya. He should utter three times thus : "Upajjhāyo me bhante hohi", i. e. "Venerable Sir, be my 'preceptor'. And if he expresses his consent, he should be deemed as his Upajjhāya.

The Buddha has enjoined that a Saddhivihārika must live under the guardianship of an Upajjhāya. (Ibid, p, 43). The relation between the Saddhivihārika and Upajjhāya is like that of a son and father. It is laid down by the Buddha that the Saddhivihārika must treat his Upajjhāya as his father. (Upajjhāyo, Bhikkhave, saddhivihārikamhi puttacittaṃ upaṭṭhapessati, saddhivihāriko upajjhāyamhi pitucittaṃ upaṭṭhapessati.—Ibid, p, 43).

The Saddhivihārika is expected to do all kinds of services to his Upajjhāya. For instance, he should provide him with the tooth-stick, water, Yāgu, arrange his robes, alms-bowl, seat, chair etc., wash his clothes, accompany with him if he wishes so, keep himself always behind when walking, etc. When the Upajjhāya falls sick, the Saddhivihārika should attend upon him till he is recovered. In case the Upajjhāya develops 'antipathy' towards the Dhamma, the Saddhivihārika must make every effort to dispel it, or arrange a Dhammakathā (religious discourse) for the purpose. If the Upajjhāya happens to commit any 'grievous offence' or the Sangha is meeting to pronounce an ordeal against him, it is the duty of the Saddhivihārika to make every possible endeavour to prevail upon his Upajjhāya to appear before the Sangha for the 'expiation' of the 'offence'.

It is expected that the Saddhivihārika will take the permission from his Upajjhāya in almost all the matters. For instance, without permission, he can neither give nor take the bowl or robe from others; he should not shave nor get himself shaved by others; he should not do any service to others; he should not go behind any other monk for his alms (pacchāsamana); nor should he take any monk to go behind him (pacchāsamano ādātabbo); he should not bring meals for others nor cause others to bring alms for himself, He should not go into a village or to the funeral ground or to a journey without the permission of his Upajjhāya, (See Upajjhāyavattakathā, Ibid. pp. 42-47; Co. pp. 328-332; Cf. SP. Vol. Ill, pp. 1025-1031).

In case a Saddhivihārika does not behave properly, he is liable to be 'expelled' by the Upjjhāya (Panāmanā). (Mv. pp. 51-52). If he commits any wrong, he should beg pardon; otherwise he commits the offence of Dukkata. (Ibid. p. 52).

In case the Upajjhāya is 'lost' and he still needs 'guardianship', he should find out an 'able' and 'competent' monk and take him up as his 'Ācariya' in place of bis Upajjhāya. In the following circumstances an Upajjhāya is regarded as 'lost': If the Upajjhāya goes away somewhere; or disrobes; or chages his religion; or is dead; or the Saddhivihārika is 'expelled' by his Upajjhāya. (Mo. p. 67)."

[Quelle: Upasak C. S. (Chandrika Singh): Dictionary of early Buddhist Monastic terms : (based on Pali literature). -- Varanasi : Bharati Prakashan, 1975. -- III, 245 S. ; 25 cm. -- s.v.]


2. Majjhantika's Mission in Kasmīra und Gandhāra



Abb.: Lage von Kasmīra und Gandhāra (©MS Encarta)

9. Tadā Kasmīragandhāre,
pakkaṃ sassaṃ mahiddhiko;
Aravālo nāgarājā,
vassaṃ karakasaññitaṃ.
10. Vassāpetvā samuddasmiṃ,
sabbaṃ khipati dāruṇo;
tatra Majjhantikatthero,
khippaṃ gantvā vihāyasā.
11. Aravāladahe vāri-
piṭṭhe caṅkamanādike;
akāsi disvā taṃ nāgā,
ruṭṭhā rañño nivedayuṃ.

9. /10./11. Damals ließ in Kasmīra1 und Gandhāra2 der wundermächtige Nāgakönig3 Aravāla4 Hagelregen auf das reife Getreide fallen und er spülte alles erbarmungslos ins Meer. Der Thera Majjhantika5 ging schnell durch die Luft dorthin und vollbrachte solche Taten wie auf der Wasseroberfläche des Aravālasees6 herumwandeln. Die Nāgas sahen das und meldeten es erregt ihrem König.

Kommentar:

1 Kasmīra


Abb.: Karte von Kashmir
[Bildquelle: Wikipedia]


Abb.: Bei Muzaffarabad (مظفرآباد), Azad Kashmir (آزاد کشمیر), Pakistan
[Bildquelle: The Travelling Beaver. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/travellingbeaver/95701520/. -- Creative Commons Lizenz. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-27]
 

"Kasmīra

A district in Northern India, the modern Kashmir. In the Pali texts it is always mentioned with Gandhāra and probably once formed part of that kingdom. (See also PHAI., p.93. The Jātakas mention the countries separately as comprising two kingdoms ruled by a single king, e.g., J.iii.364, 378). At the end of the Third Council, Moggaliputta sent the thera Majjhantika to propagate the religion in Kasmīra-Gandhāra. Majjhantika quelled the power of the Nāga-king Aravāla (q.v.), who was a menace to the inhabitants, and converted him to the faith, while the yakkha Pandaka and his wife Hāritā, with their five hundred sons, became sotāpannas. The thera preached the āsīvisūpama Sutta to the assembled multitude and won eighty thousand converts, while one hundred thousand persons entered the Order. We are told that from that time onwards the yellow robe was held in great esteem in Kasmīra. (Mhv.xii.3, 9 ff; Dpv.viii.4; Sp.i.64ff; see also Beal, op. cit., i.134, n.39). There was evidently a large community of monks at Kasmīra, till long after the coming of Majjhantika, for we are told that two hundred and eighty thousand monks, led by Uttinna, came from Kasmīra to Anurādhapura on the occasion of the foundation ceremony of the Mahā Thupa (Mhv.xxix.37).

In Hiouien Thsang's time Kasmīra seems to have been an independent kingdom whose king was given to serpent-worship while his queen was a follower of the Buddha. Near the capital was a stūpa which enshrined a tooth of the Buddha. This tooth was soon after taken away by Harsavardhana of Kanoj. (CAGI.104ff; Beal, i.116f, etc.)

Sāgala is mentioned as being twelve leagues from Kasmīra (Mil.82)."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

"Kashmir [Kashmiri: کٔشِیر कॅशीर, Urdu:کشمیر, Hindi: कश्मीर]

is the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent. The term Kashmir was historically described as the valley just to the south of the westernmost end of the Himalayan mountain range. Currently, Kashmir refers to a much larger area which includes the regions of Kashmir valley, Jammu and Ladakh. The main "Valley of Kashmir" is a low-lying fertile region surrounded by magnificent mountains and fed by many rivers. It is renowned for its natural beauty and quaint lifestyle.

Kashmir is derived from the Sanskrit "Kashyapa" + "Mira", which means the mountain range of sage Kashyapa. Srinagar [श्रीनगर], the ancient capital, lies alongside Dal Lake and is famous for its canals and houseboats. Srinagar (alt. 1,600 m. or 5,200 ft.) acted as a favoured summer capital for many foreign conquerors who found the heat of the Northern Indian plains in the summer season to be oppressive. Just outside the city are the beautiful Shalimar, Nishat, and Chashmashahi gardens created by Mughal emperors.

The region is currently divided between three countries: Pakistan controls the northwest portion (Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir [آزاد کشمیر]), India controls the central and southern portion (Jammu and Kashmir [Kashmiri: جۄم تٕہ کٔشِیر ज्वम त॒ कॅशीर, Urdu:جموں و کشمیر, Hindi:जम्मू और कश्मीर]) and Ladakh, and the People's Republic of China controls the northeastern portion (Aksai Chin [阿克赛钦]and the Trans-Karakoram Tract). India controls majority of the Siachen Glacier (higher peaks), whereas Pakistan controls the lower peaks. Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, India has never formally recognized the accession of the areas claimed by Pakistan and China. India claims that these areas, including the area ceded to China by Pakistan in the Trans-Karakoram Tract in 1963, are a part of its territory, while Pakistan claims the region, excluding Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract. Both countries view the entire Kashmir region as disputed territory, and do not consider each other's claim to be valid. An option favoured by many Kashmiris is independence, but both India and Pakistan oppose this for various reasons. Kashmir is considered one of the world's most dangerous territorial disputes due to the nuclear weapons capabilities of India and Pakistan. The two countries have fought two wars over the territory: the first Kashmir war in 1947 and the second Kashmir war in 1965. More recently, in 1999, there was a limited border conflict (also referred to by some as the third Kashmir war) in the Kargil area of India-controlled Kashmir."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-08]

"History of Jammu and Kashmir

Early history and Buddhism

Literally Kashmir means "land desiccated from water" (Sanskrit: Ka = water, shimeera = desiccate). According to Hindu mythology, Sage Kashyapa drained the erstwhile lake to produce the land. The earliest recorded history of Kashmir as an area begins with Ashoka Maurya who is often credited with founding the city of Srinagar as part of vast expanding empire. Kashmir was once a Buddhist seat of learning, perhaps with the Sarvāstivādan school dominating. East and Central Asian Buddhist monks are recorded as visiting the kingdom.

During his youth in the late fourth century, the famous Kuchanese [屈支 屈茨; 龜玆; 丘玆,] monk Kumārajīva [鳩摩羅], whose father was born in to an Indian noble family, studied Dīrghāgama and Madhyāgama in Kashmir under Bandhudatta, later becoming a prolific translator who helped take Buddhism to China. His mother Jīva is thought to have retired to Kashmir.

Vimalākṣa, a Sarvāstivādan Buddhist monk, travelled from Kashmir to Kucha and there instructed Kumārajīva in the Vinayapiṭaka.

Islam and Hinduism

Kashmir has known both conquerors and despots and also peaceful rulers. Some of the Kashmiri rulers like Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin were tolerant to all religions in a way comparable to Akbar [جلال الدین محمد اکبر]. Muslims and Hindus of Kashmir lived in relative harmony and friendliness since the 13th century when Islam first became the majority religion in Kashmir. The Sufi-Islamic way of life that ordinary Muslims followed in Kashmir complemented the rishi tradition of Kashmiri Pandits leading to a syncretic culture where Hindus and Muslims revered the same local saints and prayed at the same shrines.

There were also several Muslim rulers in Kashmir who were intolerant to other religions. Sultãn Sikandar Butshikan of Kashmir (AD 1389-1413) is often considered as the worst of these. Historians have recorded many of his atrocities. The Tarikh-i-Firishta records that Sikandar persecuted the Hindus and issued orders proscribing the residence of any other than Muslims in Kashmir. He also ordered to break all "golden and silver images". The Tarikh-i-Firishta further states: "Many of the bramins, rather than abandon their religion or their country, poisoned themselves; some emigrated from their native homes, while a few escaped the evil of banishment by becoming Mahomedans. After the emigration of the bramins, Sikundur ordered all the temples in Kashmeer to be thrown down" (...) "Having broken all the images in Kashmeer, he acquired the title of the Iconoclast, ‘Destroyer of Idols’." (Muhammad Qãsim Hindû Shãh Firishta : Tãrîkh-i-Firishta, translated by John Briggs under the title History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India, first published in 1829, New Delhi Reprint 1981)

The Histories

The metrical chronicle of the kings of Kashmir, called Rajatarangini, was pronounced by Professor H. II. Wilson to be the only Sanskrit composition yet discovered to which the title of history can with any propriety be applied. It first became known to the Muslims when, on Akbar's invasion of Kashmir in 1588, a copy was presented to the emperor. A translation into Persian was made by his order, and a summary of its contents, from this Persian translation, is given by Abul Fazl [ابو الفضل] in the Ain-i-Akbari. The Rajatarangini, the first of a series of four Sanskrit histories, was written about the middle of the 12th century by P. Kalhana. His work, in six books, makes use of earlier writings now lost. Commencing with traditional history of very early times, it comes down to the reign of Sangrama Deva, 1006; the second work, by Jonaraja, continues the history from where Kalhanas left off, and, entering the Muslim period, gives an account of the reigns down to that of Zain-ul-ab-ad-din, 1412. P. Srivara carried on the record to the accession of Fah Shah in 1486. And the fourth work, called Rajavalipataka, by Prajnia Bhatta, completes the history to the time of the incorporation of Kashmir in the dominions of the Mogul emperor Akbar, 1588.

In the Rajatarangini it is stated that the valley of Kashmir was formerly a lake, and that it was drained by the great rishi or sage, Kashyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting the gap in the hills at Baramulla (Varaha-mula). When Kashmir had been drained, he brought in the Brahmans to occupy it. This is still the local tradition, and in the existing physical condition of the country we may see some ground for the story which has taken this form. The name of Kashyapa is by history and tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the chief town or collection of dwellings in the valley was called Kashyapa-pura name which has been plausibly identified with the Kao-1r6.nupos of Hecataeus (apud Stephen of Byzantium) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus [Ἡρόδοτος] (3.102, 4.44). Kashmir is the country meant also by Ptolemy's Kao-ir,~pta.

The Raj

Until 1846 Kashmir was a part of the Sikh Empire. The British defeated the Sikhs and sold Kashmir to Gulab Singh for Rs. 7.5 million. During the 19th century rule, Kashmir was a popular tourist destination due to its climate. Formerly only 200 passes a year were issued by the government, but now no restriction is placed on visitors. European sportsmen and travellers, in addition to residents of India, traveled there freely. The railway to Rawalpindi [راولپنڈی], and a road thence to Srinagar made access to the valley easier. When the temperature in Srinagar rises at the beginning of June, the residents would migrate to Gulmarg, which was a fashionable hillstation during British rule. This great influx of visitors resulted in a corresponding diminution of game for the sportsmen. Special game preservation rules have been introduced, and nullahs are let out for stated periods with a restriction on the number of head to be shot.

1947

Jammu and Kashmir, was a principality lying between the two new independent nations: Republic of India and Islamic Republic of Pakistan [اسلامی جمہوریۂ پاکستان] which were formed due to the partition of the former British India colony in August 1947. A total of 565 princely states formed 40% of India's land area and held more than 100 million people. Each prince had to decide which of the two new nations to join: Hindu-majority India or Muslim-majority Pakistan (which then also included East Pakistan, now Bangladesh). The ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, Maharaja Hari Singh, could not decide which country to join and in addition, he nursed fond hopes of remaining the princely ruler of Kashmir, as an independent nation. He was Hindu, while his subjects were predominantly Muslim. To avoid the decision, he signed a "standstill" agreement with Pakistan, which ensured continuity of trade, travel, communication, and similar services between the two. India did not sign a similar agreement.

After Indian forces gained control over two other princely states, Hyderabad and Junagadh, Indian postal services began listing Kashmir as Indian territory, causing alarm in Pakistan. In October 1947, Pashtuns [Persian: پختون; Urdu: پشتون ] from Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province invaded Kashmir in support of a rebellion agaist the Maharaja which had erupted in the restive Poonch district. The invasion caused widespread looting in the state. Troubled by the increasing deterioration in law and order situation, and by earlier raids, culminating in the invasion of the tribesmen, followed later by Pakistani rangers, Maharaja Hari Singh, requested armed assistance and assylum from India. India refused to send its troops unless Kashmir officially joined the Union of India. The incumbent Governor-General, Lord Mountbatten also favoured Kashmir's accession to the Republic of India, to which the Maharaja never agreed. "The Instrument of Accession was signed by the Hari Singh on October 26, 1947 extending India's jurisdiction over external affairs, defence and communications," is the claim made by India. But, British historian, Alastair Lamb, has a different story to tell. In his book, Kashmir: a disputed legacy, he claims that: "The fact that accession must have actually followed intervention presented the Indian bureaucracy at the time with some problems. Whatever produced almost at once, would have to show the desired sequence of events. Thus there was made public on 28 October the text of a pair of letters, one from the Maharaja to Mountbatten bearing the date 26 October and the other from Mountbatten to the Maharaja with the date 27 October. Both were almost certainly drafted by V.P. Menon; and we have no direct evidence as to when the Maharaja's letter was actually signed (if, indeed, it ever was), but we can be sure that it was not on 26 October." He goes on to write: "Be that as it may, the Maharaja's letter dated 26 October 1947 gives us absolutely no clue as to what the 'Instrument of Accession' actually looked like".

He further says that: "This was a document which derived from the Indian Independence Act-1947, and the Government of India Act-1935. It was, in fact, a printed form with spaces left for the name of State, the signature of the Ruler, and the day of the month of August 1947. There was also space for the Governor-General's acceptance, again with a blank for the day of the month of August 1947. It was a singularly unsuitable document for the rather special circumstances in the State of Jammu & Kashmir in October 1947. It related specifically to the British Indian Empire prior to the Transfer of Power on 15 August 1947 and not to the transfer of sovereignty by what was now an independent polity. It contained no provision either for a plebiscite or for the delegation of powers…..It is interesting that in the document reproduced as Pt.I, No. 29 in the Indian 1948-White Paper all the spaces are left blank. This is not a representation of the document signed by the Maharaja, mere an example of the kind of document he might have signed. One may well wonder why the Government of India, had it indeed been in possession of a properly signed Instrument, did not publish it as such in 1948-White Paper, it would certainly have been the documentary jewel in India's Kashmiri crown."

The next day, Indian troops were airlifted into Srinagar. The Pakistani government immediately contested the accession, suggesting that it was fraudulent, that the Maharaja acted under duress, and that he had no right to sign an agreement with India when the standstill agreement with Pakistan was still in force. Furthermore, pro-Indian Kashmiri politicians such as Sheikh Abdullah denounced the Instrument of Accession as a document signed by an illegitimate monarch.

India's presence thus had to be a temporary one. This is clear from the then Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru's [जवाहरलाल नेहरू] letter to Pakistan's Prime Minister as late as 10th of November 1953: "Our objective is to give freedom to the people of Kashmir to decide their future in a peaceful way so as to create no upset. Therefore, I suggested that the plebiscite should be for the State as a whole and the detailed result of the plebiscite would then be the major factor for the decision to be taken. The detailed result will give us a fairly clear indication of the wishes of the people not only in the state as whole but in different areas".

The 1996-report Jurists Judgment on Human Rights Violations in Kashmir released by Geneva-based International Commission of Jurists is also worth-attention. It says: "The right of self-determination to which the people of Jammu and Kashmir became entitled as part of the process of partition has neither been exercised nor abandoned and thus remains exercisable today."

14th August 1947 to 27th October, Kashmir was in effect an independent state. Aggression came from both India and Pakistan, and this behaviour has remained the hallmark of both the countries as far as their relation with Kashmir and Kashmiris is concerned.

See also: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947, The Accession of the Princely States
Post-1947

In 1949, the Indian government obliged Hari Singh to leave Jammu and Kashmir, and yield the government to Sheikh Abdullah, the leader of a popular political party, the National Conference Party. Since then, a bitter enmity has been developed between India and Pakistan and three wars have taken place between them over Kashmir. The growing dispute over Kashmir also lead to the rise of terrorism in the state. The year 1989 saw the intensification of conflict in Jammu and Kashmir as Mujahadeens [مجاهدي] from Afghanistan slowly infiltrated the region following the end of the Soviet-Afghan War the same year. However, what started as essentially an indigenous popular uprising in Indian-administered Kashmir, has undergone drastic changes in the last decade."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Kashmir. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-08]

"Buddhism in Kashmir
 

Kashmir was a major center of Buddhism. Buddhism was an important part of the classical Kashmiri culture, as is reflected in the Nilamata Purana and the Kalhana's Rajatarangini.

In Kalhana's time, and before that, there was no apparently no distinction between "Hindus" and Buddhists in Kashmir. Kalhana himself used Buddhist terms and expressions as a Buddhist would.

Nilamata Purana was the text of the worshippers of Nila Naga, the Naga worship was common in Kashmir. It mentions the prevalence of Buddhist worship as a common practice in Kashmir.

Here are some quotes from Nilamat Purana from Kashmir (trans. by Dr. Ved Kumari) (see external link below). It correctly represents the religious spirit of ancient India.


709-710a. O Brahman, the god Visnu, the lord of the world, shall be (born as) the preceptor of the world, Buddha by name, at the time when the Pusya is joined with the moon, in the month of Vaisaksha, in twenty eighth Kali Age.
710b-12. Listen from as to how his worship should be performed in the bright-half, from that period onwards, in uture. The image of Buddha should be bathed (with water renderd holy) with all medicinal herbs, all jewels and all scents, in accordance with the sayings of the Sakyas. The dwellings of the Sakyas (i.e. Viharas) should be whitewashed with care.
713. Here and there, the Caityas - the abodes of the god - should be provided with paintings. The festival, swarming with the actors and the dancers, should be celebrated.
714. The Sakyas should be honoured with Civara (the dress of a Buddhist mendicant ), food and books. All this should be done till the advent of Magha.
715. O twice-born, eatable offerings should be made for three days. Worship with flowers, clothes etc. and charity for the poor (should continue for three days).

Kalhana's Rajatarangini mentions that a monumental metallic image of Buddha once stood in Srinagar, which was eventually destroyed by Sikandar Butshikan. A significant number of beautifully crafted Buddhist bronzes have survived.

In Kashmir valley, a Buddhist Bhikshu was present in Baramula in 13th century. The Kashmiri Pandits still worship the triratna symbol."

[Quelel: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kashmir. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-08]

2 Gandhāra


Abb.: Bei Taxila (ٹپکسلا ), Gandhara, Pakistan
[Bildquelle: *_*. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/o_0/9873127/. -- Creative Commons Lizenz. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-27]

"Gandhāra.

One of the sixteen Mahājanapadas (countries) (A.i.213; iv.252, etc.; in the Niddesa and Mahāvastu lists Gandhāra is omitted and others substituted). Its capital was Takkasilā, famous for its university; its king in the time of the Buddha was Pukkusāti. There was friendly intercourse between him and Bimbisāra of Magadha. Merchants and visitors from one country to another were lodged and fed at the expense of the country's king, and no tariffs were levied on their merchandise. There was constant exchange of goods and valuables, and on one occasion Bimbisāra, wishing to send his friend a gift of particular value, dispatched to him a letter containing news of the appearance in the world of the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. When Pukkusāti read the letter he decided to become a follower of the Buddha, and ordained himself as a monk; then, leaving his kingdom, he travelled all the way to Sāvatthi to see the Buddha (MA.ii.979ff). This conversion of Gandhāra's' king, however, does not seem to have had the effect of converting the rest of its people to the Buddha's faith. The memory of Pukkusāti was evidently soon forgotten, for we find Moggaliputta Tissa, at the conclusion of the Third Council, sending the Thera Majjhantika to convert Gandhāra (Mhv.xii.3ff).

According to Buddhaghosa's account, Pukkusāti's kingdom was over one hundred leagues in extent (MA.ii.988), and the distance from Takkasilā to Sāvatthi was one hundred and ninety-two leagues (MA.ii.987; from Benares it was one hundred and twenty leagues, vīsamyo-janasata; J.i.395; ii.47). There was evidently a well-known caravan route linking the two countries, although Gandhāra was regarded as a paccantima janapada. (MA.ii.982; there was also constant trade between Gandhāra and Videha, J.iii.365ff. It would appear from the Mahā Niddesa i.154 that Takkasilā was a regular centre of trade).

At the time of Majjhantika's visit, the people of Gandhāra were being harassed by the Nāga-king Aravāla, and the chronicles contain details of his conversion by the monk. The Nāga-king, together with his retinue, the yakkha Pandaka and his wife Hāritā, became devout followers of the Buddha. Majjhantika preached the āsīvisūpama Sutta, and many thousands joined the Order. (Mhv.xii.9ff; Smp.i.64f; Dpv.viii.4).

Gandhāra appears to have included Kasmīra, the two countries being always mentioned together as Kasmīra-Gandhāra. They occupied the sites of the modern districts of Peshawar and Rawalpindi in the northern Punjab (PHAI. p.93). In the time of Asoka the country formed part of his empire, and is mentioned as such in Rock Edict V. Before that it was subject to the Achaemenid kings. Gandhāra was always famous for its red woollen shawls (kambala) (SNA.ii.487; J.vi.501).

Another king of Takkasilā besides Pukkusāti is mentioned - namely, Naggaji, who was a contemporary of Nimi, king of Videha. (J.iii.377; cf. Ait. Brāhmana vii.34; Sat. Brāhmana viii.1, 4, 10; see also Gandhārarājā).

One of the eye teeth of the Buddha was deposited in Gandhāra (Bu.xxviii.6; D.ii.167)."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

"Gandhāra (also Ghandara, Ghandahra, Chandahara, and Persian Gandara) is the name of an ancient Mahajanapada in eastern Afghanistan and north-west province of Pakistan. Gandhara was located mainly on northern side of Kabul River. In the east, it extended beyond Indus River and included within its boundaries parts of the valley of Kashmir (Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 151).

Kingdom of Gandhara lasted from 6th Century BC to 11th Century AD. It attained its height from 1st century to 5th Century AD under Buddhist Kushan Kings. After it was conquered by Mahmood of Ghazni in 1021 AD, the name Gandhara disappeared. During Muslim period the area was administered from Lahore or from Kabul. During Mughals time area was part of Kabul province

Geography

The Gandharas were settled since the Vedic times on the banks of Kabul River (river Kubha or Kabol) up to its mouth into Indus.The region is known as Peshawar Valley. Later the Gandhras crossed the Indus and included parts of north-west Punjab of Pakistan. Gandhara was located on the grand northern high road (Uttarapatha) and was a centre of international commercial activities. It was an important channel of communication with ancient Iran and Central Asia.

The boundaries of Gandhara varied throughout the history. Sometime Peshawar valley and Taxila collectively referred as Gandhara. Sometime Swat valley was also included. However, heart of Gandhara was always Peshawar valley. The kingdom was ruled from capitals at Pushkalavati (Charsadda), Taxila, Purushapura (Peshawar) and in its final days from Udabhandapura (Hund) on the Indus.

Ancient Gandhara

Pre Historic Period

In Gandhara the evidence of existence of Stone Age men were found at Sanghao near Mardan. Discovered by Dani, stone tools and burnt bones dated 70,000 near were found near caves. Caves itself were occupied around 15,000 years ago.

Till to date no evidence of Harappan Culture of Indus Valley Civilization has been found in Gandhara. The Aryans moved in to Gandhara and rest of North Western Pakistan around 1500BC.

The region shows an influx of southern Central Asian culture in the Bronze Age with the Gandhara grave culture, likely corresponding to immigration of Indo-Aryan speakers and the nucleus of Vedic civilization. This culture survived till 600 BC. Its evidnce has been discovered in the Hilly regions of Swat and Dir, and even at Taxila.

The name of the Gandharis is attested from the Rigveda (RV 1.120.1). The Gandharis, along with the Mujavantas, Angas and the Magadhas, are also mentioned in the Atharvaveda (AV 5.22.14), but apparently as a despised people. Gandharas are included in the Uttarapatha division of Puranic and Buddhistic traditions. Aitareya Brahmana refers to king Naganajit of Gandhara who was contemporary of Shah Janaka of Videha.

Gandharas and their king figure prominently as strong allies of the Kurus against the Pandavas in Mahabharata war. The Gandharas were a furious people, well trained in the art of war. According to Puranic traditions, this Janapada was founded by Gandhara, son of Aruddha, a descendent of Yayati. The princes of this country are said to have come from the line of Druhyu who was a famous king of Rigvedic period. The river Indus watered the lands of Gandhara. According to Vayu Purana (II.36.107), the Gandharas were destroyed by Pramiti aka Kalika, at the end of Kalyuga.

The Gandhara kingdom sometimes also included Kashmira (Jataka No 406). Hecataeus of Miletus (549-468) refers to Kaspapyros (Kasyapura i.e. Kashmira) as Gandaric city. According to Gandhara Jataka, at one time, Gandhara formed a part of the kingdom of Kashmir. Jataka also gives another name Chandahara for Gandhara. Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya refer to sixteen great nations (solas Mahajanapadas) which flourished in Indian sub-continent during Buddha's time, only two of which viz. the Gandhara and the Kamboja were located in the Uttarapatha or the north-western division.

Gandhāra is also thought to be the location of the mystical Lake Dhanakosha, birthplace of Padmasambhava, founder of Tibetan Buddhism. The bKa' brgyud (Kagyu) [བཀའབརྒྱུད་] sect of Tibetan Buddhism identifies the lake with Andan Dheri stupa, located near the tiny village of Uchh near Chakdara in the lower Swat Valley. A spring was said to flow from the base of the stupa to form the lake. Archaeologists have found the stupa but no spring or lake can be identified.

The primary cities of Gandhara were Purushpura (now Peshawar [پیشاور]), Takshashila (Prakrit Taxila [ٹپکسل]) and Pushklavati. Last two cities are said to have been named after Taksa and Pushkara, the two sons of Bharata, a prince of Ayodhya [अयोध्या].

Pushkalavati & Prayag

Pushkalavati remained capital of Gandhara from 6th Century BC to 2nd century AD, when capital moved to Peshawar. An important Buddhist shrine kept city as center of pilgrimage until 7th century AD. Pushkalavati had some significant for earlier Aryans. This city in Peshawar Valley is situated at the confluence of Swat and Kabul rivers. Three different branches of River Kabul meet there. That specific place is still called Prang and considered sacred. The local people still bring their dead for burial. Aryans found similar geographical characteristics at the confluence of Ganga and Yamuna and founded sacred city by the name of Prayag [heute: इलाहाबाद; الاهاباد] near Benares [वाराणसी]. This is one of the ancient pilgrim centres of India.

City of Taxila

By the time of Buddha, beside Benares, Taxila became renowned center of learning where scholars from all over the world came to seek higher education. In Jataka stories this city was always mentioned as center of learning. Panini, the Indian genius of grammar and Kautiliya, the Indian Machiavelli were the products of Taxila University. Later in 2nd Century AD, Charaka, Kanishka’s court doctor and the great master of Indian medical science studied there.

Persian rule

Cyrus the Great (558-530 BCE) [Κῦρος ; کوروش] built first universal empire of the world stretching from Greece to the Indus River. Both Gandhara and Kamboja soon fell a prey to the Achaemenian [هخامنشیان] Dynasty of Persia during the reign of Cyrus the Great or in the first year of Darius I. [داریوش ,  Δαρεῖος] The Gandhara and Kamboja had constituted the seventh satrapys(upper Indus) of the Achaemenid Empire.

When Achamenian took control of this kingdom, Pushkra-sakti a contemporary of king Bimbisara of Magadha was the king of Gandhara. He was in power struggle against kingdoms of Avanti and Pandavas.

The inscription on Darius’ (521-486 BC) tomb at Naqsh-i-Rustam near Persepolis recorded GADARA (Gandhara) along with HINDUSH (West Punjab) in the list of satrapies. The Greek historian Herodotus (490-420 ? BC) in his book The Histories gave list of twenty provinces of Persian Empire. He reported Gandhara as Paktuike (3:93) and in another passage identified this territory with Peshawar Valley (4:44). The word Paktuike is interesting since present inhabitants of Gandhara are known as Pakhtun.

Under Persian rule system of centralized administration and bureaucratic system introduced to the region. Influenced by the Persians and access to Western Asians civilization, the great scholars like Panini and Kautaliya born in this cosmopolitan environment. Kharosti alphabet derived from Aramaic (official language of Achaemenians) alphabet developed here and remained national script of Gandhara until third century AD.

By about 380 BC Persian hold weakened. Many small kingdoms sprang in Gandhara. Around 327 BC Alexander the Great invaded Gandhara and Indian Satrapies of Persian Empire. His stay in this area was merely less than a year. This did not have any immediate administrative or cultural effect. The expeditions of Alexander were recorded by Arrian (around 175 AD) in Anabasis and other chroniclers many centuries after the event. The names of places and personalities described in these chronicles are difficult to identify.

The companions of Alexander the Great [Μέγας Αλέξανδρος] did not record the names of Kamboja and Gandhara and rather located a dozen small political units in their territories. Alexander conqured most of these political units of the former Gandhara and Kamboja Mahajanapadas.

According to Greek chroniclers, at the time of Alexander's invasion, hyparchs Kubhesha, Hastin (Astes) and Ambhi (Omphes) were ruling lower Kabul [کابل] valley, Puskalavati (modern Charasadda) and Taxila respectively, while Ashvajit (chief of Aspasios or Ashvayanas) and Assakenos (chief of Assakenois or Ashvakayanas) (both being sub-units of the Kambojas) were ruling upper Kabul valley and Mazaga (Mashkavati) respectively.

Gandhara under the Mauryas

Chandergupta, the founder of Mauryan dynasty was living in Taxila when Alexander captured this city. Here he met Kautilya, who remained his chief adviser throughout his career. Gandhara was won back from the Greeks by Chandragupta Maurya. Having defeated Seleucus Nicator [Σέλευκος Νικάτωρ] (Alexander's successor in Asia) in 305 BCE, the Mauryan Emperor extended his domains up to and including Southern Afghanistan. Using this Gandhara as his base Chandergupta led a rebellion against Magadha Empire and ascended to the throne at Pataliputra in 321 BC. He was the first ruler of Mauryan dynasty.

Mauryan inherited and incorporated many Iranian traditions of Achaemenid Empire, which later, became the basis of Kautaliya’s book on statecraft. With the completion of the Empire's Grand Trunk Road, the region presumably prospered as a center of trade. Gandhara remained a part of the Mauryan Empire for close to a century and a half.

Ashoka, the grandson of Chandergupta was the one of the greatest rulers the world has ever known. Like his grandfather, Ashoka also started his career from Gandhara as a governor. Later he became Buddhist and promoted this religion in his empire. He built many stupas in Gandhara, Mauryan control over northern frontagers including the Yonas, Kambojas and the Gandharas is attested from the Rock Edicts left by Ashoka, who shows special solicitude for these frontier highlanders. His successors, however, failed to cast such imperial shadows throughout the sub-continent.

It is also held by some scholars that the Gandharas and the Kambojas were one peope. Based on time and space contiguity, this view does not seem to be wide off the mark.

Gandhara under Graeco Bactrians, Sakas and Indo-Parthinas

 


Standing Buddha, Gandhara (1st-2nd century). Tokyo National Museum.

The decline of the Empire left the sub-continent open to Greco-Bactrian expansion. Southern Afghanistan was absorbed by Demetrius of Bactria in 180 BCE. Round about 185BC, Demetrius, King of Bactria invaded and conquered Gandhara and the Punjab. Later, wars between different groups of Greek settlers of Bactria, resulted independence of Gandhara from Bactria. Menander was the most famous king. He ruled from Taxila and later from Sagala (Sialkot). He rebuilt Taxila (Sirkup) and Pushkalavati. He became Buddhist and remembered in Buddhists records due to his discussions with a great Buddhist philosopher in the book Milinda-panha.

Around the time of Menander’s death in 140 BC, Kushans overran Bactria and ended Greek rule there. At the same time, Sakas, diverted by their Parthian cousins from Iran moved into Gandhara and other parts of present Pakistan and West India. The most famous king of Sakas was Maves who established himself in Gandhara. The entry of Sakas in about 97 BC was an important event. The Pashtu (or Pakhtu) now spoken in North Western Pakistan and Afghanistan is said to based on Saka’s language.

By 90 BC Parthians took control of east Iran and around 50 BC put an end to last remnants of Greek rule in Afghanistan. By 7AD a Parthian dynasty succeeded to took control of Gandhara. It was Parthians, the destroyers of Greek rule who brought Greek artistic traditions to Gandhara. It was from this time (50BC – 75AD) that we see development of Gandhara School of Art. During this period Thomas the Apostle visited India, encountered the Indo-Parthian king Gondophares.

The Golden Age of Kushans Rule

The Parthian dynasty fell about 75 AD to another horde from Central Asia. Kushans, a Turkish type people known as Yueh-Chih [月氏] in China moved from Central Asia to Bacteria, where they stayed for a century. Around 75 AD, one of the tribe Kushan under the leadership of Kujula Kadphises gained control of Gandhara and other part of present Pakistan.

Kushan period is considered the Golden Period of Gandhara. Peshawar Valley and Taxila are littered with ruins of stupas and monasteries of this period. Gandhara art flourished and produced some of the best pieces of sculpture of all time. Many monuments were created to commemorate the Jataka tales.

Gandhara civilization peaked during great Kushan king Kanishka (128-151-AD). This was the golden period of Gandhara. Cities of Taxila at Sirsukh, and Peshawar were built. Peshawar became the capital of great empire stretching from Bengal to Central Asia. Kanishka was a great patron of the faith and Buddhism spread to Central Asia and Far East over the Pamir where his empire met Han Empire of China.

Kanishka Empire was known as Kingdom of Gandhara and under his leadership it became the center of civilization. The Buddhist art spread outward from Gandhara to other parts of Asia. He greatly encouraged Buddhism. Before Kanishka Buddha was not represented in human form. In Gandhara Mahayana Buddhism flourished and Buddha was represented in human form and given a status of a deity.

Kanishka created big monuments of Arts. He builds a great tower to a height of 400 feet at Peshawar. This tower was reported by Fa-Hien [法顯], Sun-Yun and Hsuan-Tsang [玄奘]. This structure was destroyed and builds many times and remained in semi ruins when finally destroyed by Mahmood [محمود غزنوی] in 11th century. Under him Gandhara became a holy land of Buddhism and attracted Chinese pilgrimage to visit Gandhara to see monuments associated with many Jataka tales.

After Kanishka, empire started losing territories in the east. In west it came under Sassanian (who took power from Parthians in Iran) suzerainty and became their vassals and ruled from 241-450AD. Under these Kushan chiefs new Buddhists stupas continued to appear and old ones were enlarged. Huge statues of the Buddha were erected in monasteries and carved into the hillsides.

Gandhara after Huns Invasion

Huns captured Gandhara around 450 AD, and did not adopt Buddhism. During their rule, Hinduism revived and Gandharan Civilization declined. Sassanians aided by Turks destroyed the Huns' power base in Central Asia and Gandhara once again came under Persian suzerainty in 568 AD. When the Sassanians were defeated by Muslim Arabs in 644 AD, Gandhara along with Kabul was ruled by Buddhist Turks.

The travel records of many Chinese Buddhists pilgrims record that Gandhara was going through a transformation during these centuries. Buddhism was declining and Hinduism was rising. Fa-Hien [法顯] travelled around 400 AD, when Prakrit was the language of the people and Buddhism was flourishing. 100 years later, when Sung-Yun visited in 520 AD, a different picture is described: the area had been destroyed by Huns and was ruled by Lae-Lih who did not practice law of Buddha. Hiun-Tsang visited around 644 and found Buddhism on the wane and Hinduism in the ascendant. Gandhara was ruled by a king from Kabul, who respected Buddha law, but Taxila was in ruins and Buddhist monasteries were deserted. Instead, Hindu temples were numerous and Hinduism was popular.

Gandhara under Turkshahi & Hindushahi

After the fall of Sassanian Empire to Arabs in 644 AD Afghanistan and Gandhara came under pressure from Muslims. But they failed to extend their empire to Gandhara. Gandhara was first ruled from Kabul and then from Udabhandapura (Hind).

In 665 AD Kabul was put under siege by Arabs, but they never tried to cross Hindu Kush. Arabs never fully subdued Kabul and Gandhara was ruled from there by Turkshahi for next 200 years. Sometime in 9th century Hindushahi replaced Turkshahi. The date of Hindushahi takeover from Turkshahi (Also recorded as Kabulshahi) is not certain. Based on various Muslim records the estimated date is 870 AD.

According to Al-Biruni (973-1048 AD) [ابوریحان بیرونی], Kallar a Brahmin minister of Turkshahi founded Hindushahi dynasty in 843 AD. The dynasty ruled from Kabul, later moved capital to Udabhandapura. They build great temples all over their kingdoms. Some of these buildings are still in good conditions in the Salt Range of the Punjab.

End of Gandhara

Jayapala was the last great king of this dynasty. His empire extended from west of Kabul to the River Sutlej [ਸਤਲੁਜستلج]. However, timing of this expansion of Gandhara kingdom coincided with the rising of a powerful Muslim force of Mahmood in Kabul valley. He was defeated by Mahmood of Ghazni. After his defeat, proud king Jayapala committed suicide. Son of Jaypala Anandpala moved his capital near Nandana in Salt Range. In 1021 AD the last king of this dynasty Trilocanpala assassinated by his own troops. Name of Gandhara was forgotten for ever.

Kandahar [قندهار] in Afghanistan was probably named after Gandhara. According to H.W. Bellow, emigrant from Gandhara in fifth century AD brought this name to modern Kandahar. Fa-Hien reported Buddha’s alms-bowl in Peshawar Valley when he visited around 400 AD. (Chapter-XII) In 1872 Bellow saw this huge begging bowl 7 feet in diameter preserved in the shrine of Sultan Wais outside Kandhar, which was probably brought there by refuge Buddhists monks. When Caroe wrote his book in 1958 (Caroe, pp170-171), this relic was reported to be at Kabul Museum Present status of this bowl is not known due to the war in Afghanistan since last couple of decades.

Discovery of Gandhara

By the time Gandhara absorbed in to Mahmood of Ghazni Empire, Buddhist buildings were already in ruins and Gandhara Art had been forgetton. After Al-Biruni, Kashmiri writer Kahana wrote his book Rajatarangini in 1148AD. He recorded events about Gandhara, its last royal dynasty and capital Udabhandapura. The history and art of the Gandhara remained unknown to the inhabitants of the area and rest of the world until 19th century.

In 19th Century AD, British soldiers and administrators started taking interest in the ancient history of the Indian Subcontinent. In 1830’s coins of post Ashoka period were discovered and in the same period Chinese travelogues were translated. Charles Masson, James Prinsep and Cunningham deciphered Kharosthi script in 1838.

Chinese records provided locations and site plans of Buddhists shrines. Along with discovery of coins, these records provided necessary clues to piece togather the history of Gandhara.

In 1848 Cunningham found Gandhara sculptures in north of Peshawar. He also identified the site of Taxila in 1860’s. From than on large number of Buddha statues started to discover in Peshawar valley.

Marshal performed excavation of Taxila from 1912 to 1934. He discovered Greek, Parthian, and Kushan cities and large number of stupas and monastries. These discovery helped to finalize the chronology of history of Gandhara and its art.

After 1947 Ahmed Hassan Dani and Archelogy Department of Peshawar University made number of discoveries in the Peshawra and Swat Vallies. Excavation on many site of Gandhara Civilzation are being done by the reserchesrs from many universitis around the world.

Language

The Gandharan Buddhist texts are both the earliest Buddhist texts and the earliest Indian manuscripts ever discovered. Most are composed on birch bark and were found in labeled clay pots. Panini has mentioned both Vedic form Gandhari as well as the later form Gandhari in his Ashtadhyayi.

Gandhara's language, Gāndhārī, was a collection of related Prakrit or "Middle Indo-Aryan" dialects. Gāndhārī was written right-to-left in the Kharoṣṭhī script, which was ultimately adapted from the Aramaic alphabet. At the time of its adoption, Gandhāra was controlled by the Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian empire, which used a similar script to write the related Iranian languages of the Empire. This alphabet also sets Gāndhārī apart as a unique set of dialects of the Middle Indo-Aryan period; Semitic scripts were not used to write Indian languages again until the arrival of Islam and subsequent adoption of the Persian-style Arabic alphabet for New Indo-Aryan languages like Urdu, Punjabi, Sindhi and Kashmiri. Kharosthi script died out about the 4th century, though Hindko and Kohistani, descendants of these distinct regional dialects are still spoken today.

Gandhara was a predominantly Indo-Aryan country. Most of the present inhabitants of Gandhara are Pakhtu (Pashtu ) speakers. Pakhtu is an Iranian language of Sakas. During 8th and 10th Pakhtun (Also called Afghans) started to move to Kabul valley. Pakhtuns origin is not clear. They were probably originated in the area now known as Kandhar. Turkshahi and Hindushahi first tried to stop their movement but later allowed to settle them in Lamghan to resist the Arabs expansion. From 13th century Afghan tribes started moving in to Peshawar valley and by 15th century became dominant ethnic group.

Gandharan proselytism

 


The Kushan Lokaksema (Ch: 支谶, Zhi Chan), first translator of a Mahayana sutra into Chinese.

Gandharan Buddhist missionaries were active, with other monks from Central Asia, from the 2nd century CE in the Chinese capital of Loyang [洛阳], and particularly distinguished themselves by their translation work. They promoted both Theravada and Mahayana scriptures.
  • Lokakṣema [支谶], a Kushan and the first to translate Mahayana scriptures into Chinese (167-186).
  • Zhi Yao [支曜](c. 185), a Kushan monk, second generation of translators after Lokaksema.
  • Zhi Qian [支谦] (220-252), a Kushan monk whose grandfather had settled in China during 168-190.
  • Zhi Yueh (c.230), a Kushan monk who worked at Nanjing [南京].
  • Dharmarakṣa [竺法护] (265-313), a Kushan whose family had lived for generations at Dunhuang [敦煌].
  • Jnanagupta 闍那崛多 or 志德 (561-592), a monk and tranlator from Gandhara.
  • Shikshananda (652-710), a monk and translator from Udyana, Gandhara.
  • Prajna [般若三藏] (c. 810). A monk and translator from Kabul, who educated the Japanese Kukai [空海] in Sanskrit texts.

See also: Silk Road transmission of Buddhism

Gandharan art

Gandhāra is noted for the distinctive Gandhāra style of Buddhist art, a consequence of merger of Greek, Syrian, Persian and Indian art traditions. The development of this form of art started in Parthian Period(50BC – 75AD). Gandhāran style flourished and achieved its peak during the Kushan period from 1st Century to 5th Century. It declined and suffered destruction after invasion of the White Huns [厌哒 or 嚈噠] in the 5th century.

See also: Greco-Buddhist art

Timeline
  • c.2300-c.1700 BCE Indus Valley civilization
  • c.1700-c.520 BCE No records
  • c.520-c.400 BCE Persian Empire
  • c.329-c.316 BCE Occupied by Alexander the Great and Macedonian generals
  • c.316-c.180 BCE Controlled by the Maurya dynasty, founded by Chandragupta. Converted to Buddhism under King Asoka (273-232 BCE)
  • c.185-c.97 BCE Under control of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, with some incursions of the Indo-Scythians from around 100 BCE.
  • c.97 BCE-c.07 CE (Common Era) Saka (Scythian) Rule
  • c.07-c.75 Parthian invasion and Indo-Parthian Kingdom . Rule of Commander Aspavarman?
  • c.75- c.230 Kushan Empire
  • c.230-c.440 Kushanshahi under Persian Sassanian suzerainty.
  • c.450-c.565 White Huns (Hephthalites)
  • c.565-c.644 Local control under Sassanian suzerainty
  • c.650-c.870 Turkshahi, ruled from Kabul
  • c.870- 1021 Hindushahi, ruled from Udabhandapura.
References
  • Beal, Samuel. 1884. Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang. 2 vols. Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. Reprint: Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1969.
  • Beal, Samuel. 1911. The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang by the Shaman Hwui Li, with an Introduction containing an account of the Works of I-Tsing. Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. 1911. Reprint: Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. 1973.
  • Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu." 2nd Edition.[1]
  • Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation.
  • Legge, James. Trans. and ed. 1886. A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms: being an account by the Chinese monk Fâ-hsien of his travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399-414) in search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline. Reprint: Dover Publications, New York. 1965.
  • Watters, Thomas. 1904-5. On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India (A.D. 629-645). Reprint: Mushiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi. 1973.
  • Caroe, Sir Olaf, The Pathans, Oxford University Press, Karachi, 1958.
  • Herodotous, The Histories, Translated by Aubrey De Selincourt, Penguin Books, 1954.
  • Hussain, J. An Illustrated History of Pakistan, Oxford University Press, Karachi, 1983.
  • Isobel Shaw,Pakistan Handbook, The Guidebook Co., Hong Kong, 1989"

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandhara. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-06]

3 Nāga sind mythische Kobras, die auch andere Gestalten annehmen können.

4 Aravāla

"Aravāla

A Nāga king, who lived in the Aravāladaha in Kasmīra-Gandhāra.

He had been in the habit of destroying the crops of the people by causing hail-storms. When Majjhantika Thera was sent by Moggaliputtatissa's Council to convert Kasmīra-Gandhāra, the Thera went to Aravāladaha and standing in the air above it showed himself to the Nāgas. Hearing of this the nāga king came out and tried to frighten the Elder with various terrors. When all his attempts had failed he acknowledged defeat and the Thera preached to him. He and his 84,000 followers were established in the Refuge and the Five Precepts (v.l. āravāla). Sp.i.65; Mhv.xii.9-20."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

5 Majjhantika

"Majjhantika Thera

An arahant. He recited the kammavācā (or ecclesiastical act) at the ordination of Mahinda, on whom he later conferred the upasampadā ordination (Mhv.v.207; Sp.i.51; Dpv.vii.24). Later, at the conclusion of the Third Council, Majjhantika went as preacher to Kasmīra Gandhāra. There, by his great iddhi powers, he overcame the Nāga king Aravāla and converted him to the Faith, while Pandaka and his wife Hāritā and their five hundred sons became sotāpannas. Majjhantika preached the āsīvisopama Sutta to the assembled concourse and later ordained one hundred thousand persons (Mhv.xii.3, 9ff.; Sp.i.64ff.; Dpv.viii.4; Mbv.113; for the Tibetan version see Rockhill, op. cit., 167ff.). The sermon preached by Majjhantika is referred to in the Scholiast to the Sarabhanga Jātaka (J.v.142).

This same Elder is referred to elsewhere as an example of one who practised pariyatti appicchatā (SNA.ii.494; DA.iii.1061, but at AA.i.263 he is called Majjhantika Tissa). He was the leader of the assembly of monks (sanghathera). On the day of the dedication of Asoka’s vihāra, the Thera was a khīnāsava and was present, but his begging bowl and robe were hardly worth a farthing. People, seeing him there, asked him to make way; but he sank into the earth, rising to receive the alms given to the leader of the monks, knowing that he alone was fit to accept it. The story is given at AA.i.43; MA.i.350."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

6 Aravālasee: See, in dem Aravāla haust, nicht identifiziert

12. Nāgarājātha ruṭṭho so,
vividhā bhiṃsikākari;
vātā mahantā vāyanti,
megho gajjati vassati.
13. Phalantāsaniyo vijjū,
niccharanti tato tato;
mahīruhā pabbatānaṃ,
kūṭāni papatanti ca.
14. Virūparūpā nāgā ca,
bhiṃsāpenti samantato;
sayaṃ dhūpati jalati,
akkosanto anekadhā.

12./13./14. Erregt veranlasste der Nāgakönig verschiedenerlei Schreckliches:

15. Sabbaṃ taṃ iddhiyā thero,
paṭibāhiya bhiṃsanaṃ;
avoca nāgarājaṃ taṃ,
dassento balam uttamaṃ.

15. Der Thera wehrte all diese Schrecken mit seiner Macht ab und sprach zum Nāgakönig und verwies auf seine unübertreffliche Macht:

16. Sadevako pi ce loko,
āgantvā tāsayeyya maṃ;
na me paṭibalo assa,
yaṃ ettha bhayabheravaṃ.

16. "Selbst wenn die Welt samt ihren Göttern käme und mich erschrecken wollte, dann gäbe es keine mir gleichwertige Macht, die mich erschrecken und ängstigen könnte.

17. Sace pi tvaṃ mahiṃ sabbaṃ,
sasamuddaṃ sapabbataṃ;
ukkhipitvā mahānāga,
khipeyyāsi mamopari.
18. Neva me sakkuṇeyyāsi,
janetuṃ bhayabheravaṃ;
aññadatthu tavevassa,
vighāto uragādhipa.

17. /18. Selbst wenn du, großer Nāga, die ganze Erde samt den Ozeanen und Gebirgen hochheben und auf mich werfen würdest, könntest du auf keinen Fall in mir Angst und Furcht erwecken. Im Gegenteil: es wäre nur deine eigene Vernichtung, König der Schlangen."

19. Taṃ sutvā nimmadassassa,
thero dhammam adesayi;
tato saraṇasīlesu,
nāgarājā patiṭṭhahi.

19. Als der Nāgakönig das hörte, wurde er demütig. Da predigte ihm der Thera die Lehre. Daraufhin gründete sich der Nāgakönig auf die Zufluchten1 und die Übungspunkte der Sittlichkeit2.

Kommentar:

1 Die Zufluchten sind die dreifache Zuflucht zum Buddha, zur Buddhalehre (Dhamma) und zur Gemeinschaft der Erlösten (Sangha).

Buddhaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi
dhammaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi
saṅghaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi

dutiyaṃ pi Buddhaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi
dutiyaṃ pi dhammaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi
dutiyaṃ pi saṅghaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi

tatiyaṃ pi Buddhaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi
tatiyaṃ pi dhammaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi
tatiyaṃ pi saṅghaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi

2 Die Übungspunkte der Sittlichkeit sind:

  1. Enthaltung vom Töten von Lebewesen
  2. Enthaltung von Stehlen
  3. Enthaltung von sexuell-erotischem Fehlverhalten
  4. Enthaltung von Lügen
  5. Enthaltung von berauschenden Mitteln, die Anlass zu Nachlässigkeit sind
  1. pāṇātipātā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ [birmanische Versionen lesen: veramaṇisikkhāpadaṃ] samādiyāmi
  2. adinnādānā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi
  3. kāmesu micchācārā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi
  4. musāvādā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi
  5. surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhānā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi

20. Tatheva caturāsīti
sahassāni bhujaṅgamā;
Himavante ca gandhabbā,
yakkhā kumbhaṇḍakā bahū.

20. Ebenso taten 84000 Schlangen1, und viele Gandhabba2, Yakkha3 und Kumbaṇḍhaka4 im Himālaya.

Kommentar:

1 Schlangen = Nāga

2 Gandhabba

"Gandhabbā

A class of semi-divine beings who inhabit the Cātummahārājika-realm and are the lowest among the devas (D.ii.212). They are generally classed together with the Asuras and the Nāgas (E.g., A.iv.200, 204, 207). Beings are born among them as a result of having practised the lowest form of sīla (D.ii.212, 271).

It is a disgrace for a monk to be born in the Gandhabba-world (D.ii.221, 251, 273f). The Gandhabbas are regarded as the heavenly musicians, and Pañcasikha, Suriyavaccasā and her father Timbarū are among their number (D.ii.264).

They wait on such devas as Sakka, and the males among them form the masculine counterpart of the accharā, the nymphs. Their king is Dhatarattha, ruler of the eastern quarter (D.ii.257). Other chieftains are also mentioned (D.ii.258): Panāda, Opamañña, Sakka's charioteer Mātalī, Cittasena, Nala and Janesabha.

The Gandhabbas are sometimes described as vihangamā (going through the air) (A.ii.39; AA.ii.506). In the ātānātiya Sutta (D.iii.203, 204) the Gandhabbas are mentioned among those likely to trouble monks and nuns in their meditations in solitude. The Buddha says that beings are born among the Gandhabakāyikā devā because they wish to be so; they are described as dwelling in the fragrance o:f root-wood, of bark and sap, and in that of flowers and scents (S.iii.250f).

It is often stated that the Gandhabbas preside over conception; this is due to an erroneous translation of the word gandhabba in passages (E.g., M.i.157, 265f) dealing with the circumstances necessary for conception (mātāpitaro ca sannipatitā honti, mātā ca utunī hoti, gandhabbo ca paccupatthito hoti).

The Commentaries (E.g., MA.i.481f ) explain that here gandhabba means tatrūpakasatta - tasmim okāse nibbattanako satto - meaning a being fit and ready to be born to the parents concerned. The Tīkā says that the word stands for gantabba.

See also Gandhabbarājā."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

3 Yakkha: nichtmenschliche Wesen, teilweise hilfreich teilweise schädlich; siehe Mahāvaṃsa Kapitel 1, zu Vers 20.

4 Kumbaṇḍhaka ("die, deren Eier [= Hoden] Töpfe sind": der Name lässt vermuten, dass als Vorbild für diese Fabelwesen an der Krankheit Elephantiasis tropica Leidende dienen, bei der es u.a. zu einer enormen Schwellung der Hoden kommen kann).

"Kumbhanda.

A class of spirits mentioned with Yakkhas, Asuras and Nāgas.

They live in the South and Virūlha is their king (D.ii.257; D.iii.198).

In the Vidhurapandita Jātaka (J.vi.272), Kumbhīra is mentioned as one of their chiefs.

They had huge stomachs, and their genital organs were as big as pots, hence their name. DA.iii.964."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

Der Herr der Gandhabba ist Dhattaraṭṭha, der Herr über den Osten, der Herr der Kumbaṇḍhaka ist Virūḷhaka, der Herr über den Süden

21. Paṇḍako nāma yakkho tu,
saddhiṃ Hāritayakkhiyā;
pañcasatehi puttehi,
phalaṃ pāpuṇi ādikaṃ.

21. Ein Yakkha namens Paṇḍaka erreichte zusammen mit seiner Yakhhinī Hāritā und seinen fünfhundert Söhnen die erste Frucht3.

Kommentar:

1 erste Frucht der Erlösung, d.h. die des Stromeingetretenen

Magga m. -- Weg
  1. sotāpatti-magga m. -- Weg des Stromeintrittes
  2. sakad-āgāmī-magga m. -- Weg des Einmalwiederkehrers
  3. an-āgāmī-magga m. -- Weg des Nichtwiederkehrers
  4. arahatta-magga m. -- Weg der Arahatschaft

magga -- Weg ist ist "eine Bezeichnung für den beim Eintritt in eine der 4 Stufen der Heiligkeit aufblitzenden und das Leben für immer umgestaltenden Hellblick in die Vergänglichkeit, das Elend und die Unpersönlichkeit alles Daseins." [Nyanatiloka <Thera> <1878 - 1957>: Buddhistisches Wörterbuch : kurzgefasstes Handbuch der buddhistischen Lehren und Begriffe in alphabetischer Anordnung. -- 5. Aufl., (Unveränd. Nachdr. der 2., rev. Aufl.). -- Stammbach : Beyerlein und Steinschulte, 1999. -- 277 S. ; 18 cm. -- Originaltitel: Buddhist dictionary. -- ISBN: 3-931095-09-6. -- S. 33. -- Hier können Sie dieses Werk bestellen: http://www.buddhareden.de/fr-bestellung.htm] s. phala

(Visuddhimagga 672 - 678; Th III, 319 - 328; Nāṇamoli 785 - 792)

Phala n. -- Frucht
  1. sotāpatti-phala n. -- Frucht des Stromeintrittes
  2. sakad-āgāmī-phala n. -- Frucht des Einmalwiederkehrers
  3. an-āgāmī-phala n. -- Frucht des Nichtwiederkehrers
  4. arahatta-phala n. -- Frucht der Arahatschaft

phala -- Frucht = "Die unmittelbar" auf magga (s. oben) "folgenden und bis zur Erreichung der hören Pfade unter Umständen noch unzählige Male sich wiederholenden Bewusstseinsmomente". (Nyanatiloka, Wörterbuch, S. 34)

(Saṅgītisutta : Dīghanikāya III, 227; Nal III, 178, 7-8; Th 11, 240; Visuddhimagga 672 - 678; Th 319 - 328; Nāṇamoli 785 792)

22. Mā dāni kodhaṃ janiyattha,
ito uddhaṃ yathā pure;
sassaghātañ ca mā kattha,
sukhakāmā hi pāṇino.
23. Karotha mettaṃ sattesu,
vasantu manujā sukhaṃ;
iti tenānusiṭṭhā te,
tatheva paṭipajjisuṃ.

22. /23. Der Thera unterwies sie: "Lasst ab jetzt keinen Zorn mehr entstehen wie bisher, vernichtet nicht mehr das Getreide. Alle Lebewesen wünschen sich Wohlergehen, habt darum Güte zu allen Wesen. Die Menschen mögen hier glücklich wohnen." Die Zuhörer befolgten diese Worte.

24. Tato ratanapallaṅke,
theraṃ so uragādhipo;
nisīdāpiya aṭṭhāsi,
vījamāno tadantike.

24. Da ließ der Schlangenkönig den Thera sich auf einen Juwelenthron setzen und stand in seiner Nähe ihm zufächelnd.

25. Tadā Kasmīragandhāra-
vāsino manujāgatā;
nāgarājassa pūjatthaṃ,
mantvā theraṃ mahiddhikaṃ.
26. Theram evābhivādetvā,
ekamantaṃ nisīdisuṃ;
tesaṃ dhammam adesesi,
thero āsivisūpamaṃ.

25./26. Da erkannten die Menschen, die in Kasmīra und Gandāhra wohnten und die gekommen waren, um den Nāgakönig zu verehren, dass der Thera der Wundermächtigere [von beiden] war. Sie begrüßten den Thera formgemäß und setzten sich seitlich hin. Der Thera belehrte sie mit dem Schlangengleichnis1.

Kommentar:

1 Schlangengleichnis [āsivisūpamā]: Anguttaranikāya II, 110 - 111: 

āsi-visa = "solche, deren Gift verzehrend (āsin = Skrt. āśin) ist", d.h. bei der Wortbildung war an Giftschlangen mit zytotoxischen (gewebezerstörenden) Giften gedacht.

(Āsivisasuttaṃ )

10. Cattāro 'me bhikkhave āsivisā. Katame cattāro?

Āgataviso na ghoraviso, ghoraviso na āgataviso, āgataviso ca ghoraviso ca, nevāgataviso na ghoraviso. Ime kho bhikkhave cattāro āsivisā.

[PTS Page 111] evam eva kho bhikkhave cattāro 'me āsivisūpamā puggalā santo saṃvijjamānā lokasmiṃ. Katame cattāro?

Āgataviso na ghoraviso, ghoraviso na āgataviso, āgataviso ca ghoraviso ca, neva āgataviso na ghoraviso.

Kathañ ca bhikkhave puggalo āgataviso hoti na ghoraviso? Idha bhikkhave ekacco puggalo abhiṇhaṃ kujjhati. So ca khv assa kodho na dīgharattaṃ anuseti. Evaṃ kho bhikkhave puggalo āgataviso hoti na ghoraviso. Seyyathāpi so bhikkhave āsiviso āgataviso na ghoraviso, tathūpamāhaṃ bhikkhave imaṃ puggalaṃ vadāmi.

Kathañ ca bhikkhave puggalo ghoraviso hoti na āgataviso? Idha bhikkhave ekacco puggalo na heva kho abhiṇhaṃ kujjhati. So ca khv assa kodho dīgharattaṃ anuseti. Evaṃ kho bhikkhave puggalo ghoraviso hoti na āgataviso. Seyyathāpi so bhikkhave āsiviso ghoraviso na āgataviso, tathūpamāhaṃ bhikkhave imaṃ puggalaṃ vadāmi.

Kathañ ca bhikkhave puggalo āgataviso ca hoti ghoraviso ca? Idha bhikkhave ekacco puggalo abhiṇhaṃ kujjhati. So ca khv assa kodho dīgharattaṃ anuseti. Evaṃ kho bhikkhave puggalo āgataviso ca hoti ghoraviso ca. Seyyathāpi so bhikkhave āsiviso āgataviso ca ghoraviso ca, tathūpamāhaṃ bhikkhave imaṃ puggalaṃ vadāmi.

Kathañ ca bhikkhave puggalo nevāgataviso hoti na ghoraviso? Idha bhikkhave ekacco puggalo na heva kho abhiṇhaṃ kujjhati. So ca khv assa kodho na dīgharattaṃ anuseti. Evaṃ kho bhikkhave puggalo nevāgataviso na ghoraviso, seyyathāpi so bhikkhave āsiviso nevāgataviso na ghoraviso, tathūpamāhaṃ bhikkhave imaṃ puggalaṃ vadāmi.

Ime kho bhikkhave cattāro āsivisūpamā puggalā santo saṃvijjamānā lokasmin ti.

"110 Das Gleichnis von den Schlangen

Vier Arten von Schlangen gibt es, ihr Mönche. Welche vier? Die Schlange, die häufig Gift speit, deren Gift aber ungefährlich ist; die Schlange, deren Gift gefährlich ist, die aber nur selten Gift speit; die Schlange, die häufig Gift speit und deren Gift gefährlich ist; die Schlange, die selten Gift speit und deren Gift ungefährlich ist.

Ebenso auch, ihr Mönche, sind in der Welt vier den Schlangen ähnliche Menschen anzutreffen. Welche vier? Der Mensch, der häufig Gift speit, dessen Gift aber ungefährlich ist; der Mensch, dessen Gift gefährlich ist, der aber nur selten Gift speit; der Mensch, der häufig Gift speit und dessen Gift gefährlich ist; der Mensch, der selten Gift speit und dessen Gift ungefährlich ist.

Wie aber, ihr Mönche, speit ein Mensch häufig Gift, doch sein Gift ist ungefährlich? Da gerät einer häufig in Zorn, doch sein Zorn hält nicht lange an ....

Wie aber ist eines Menschen Gift gefährlich, doch er speit nur selten Gift? Da gerät einer nur selten in Zorn, doch sein Zorn hält lange an ....

Wie aber speit ein Mensch häufig Gift und sein Gift ist gefährlich? Da gerät einer häufig in Zorn und sein Zorn hält lange an ....

Wie aber speit ein Mensch selten Gift und sein Gift ist ungefährlich? Da gerät einer selten in Zorn und sein Zorn hält nicht lange an ....

Diese vier den Schlangen ähnlichen Menschen sind in der Welt anzutreffen."

[Übersetzt von Nyanatiloka: Die Lehrreden des Buddha aus der Angereihten Sammlung = Anguttara-Nikāya / aus dem Pāli übersetzt von Nyanatiloka. -- 3., revidierte Neuauflage. -- Köln : DuMont Schauberg. -- Bd. 2. --  ©1969. -- S. 99]

Dem Namen nach könnte es auch könnte auch das Āsivisa-sutta, Samyuttanikāya IV, 172 - 175 sein. Da sich aber das Āsiviaopamasutta des Aṅguttaranikāya mit Zorn befasst, ist gewiss jenes gemeint.

Āsivisopamasuttaṃ
238. Evaṃ me sutaṃ ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā sāvatthiyaṃ viharati jetavane anāthapiṇḍikassa ārāme. Tatra kho bhagavā bhikkhū āmantesi bhikkhavo ti bhadante ti te bhikkhū bhagavato paccassosuṃ. Bhagavā etadavoca:

Seyyathāpi bhikkhave cattāro āsivisā. Uggatejā ghoravisā. Atha puriso āgaccheyya jīvitukāmo amaritukāmo sukhakāmo dukkhapaṭikkulo, tam enaṃ evaṃ vadeyyuṃ: "ime te ambho purisa, cattāro āsivisā uggatejā ghoravisā [PTS Page 173] kālenakālaṃ vuṭṭhāpetabbā, kālena kālaṃ nahāpetabbā,  kālena kālaṃ bhojetabbā, kālena kālaṃ saṃvesetabbā,  yadā ca kho te ambho purisa imesaṃ catunnaṃ āsīvisāna uggatejānaṃ ghoravisāna aññataro vā aññataro vā kupissati, tato tvaṃ, ambho purisa, maraṇaṃ vā nigacchasi maraṇamattaṃ vā dukkhaṃ. Yan te ambho, purisa karaṇīyaṃ taṃ karohī" ti.

Atha kho so bhikkhave puriso bhīto catunnaṃ āsivisānaṃ uggatejānaṃ ghoravisānaṃ yena vā tena vā palāyetha, tam enaṃ evaṃ vadeyyuṃ: ime te ambho purisa, pañcavadhakā paccatthikā piṭṭhito piṭṭhito anubaddhā. Yatth' eva naṃ passissāma tatth' eva jīvitā voropessāmā ti; yante ambho purisa karaṇīyaṃ taṃ karehīti.

Atha kho so bhikkhave puriso bhīto catunnaṃ āsivisānaṃ uggatejānaṃ ghoravisānaṃ, bhīto pañcannaṃ vadhakānaṃ paccatthikānaṃ,  yena vā tena vā palāyetha. Tam enaṃ evaṃ vadeyyuṃ: ayaṃ te ambho purisa chaṭṭho antaracaro vadhako ukkhittāsiko piṭṭhito piṭṭhito anubaddho yatth' eva naṃ passissāmi tattheva siro pātessāmī ti. Yante ambho purisa karaṇīyaṃ taṃ karohīti.

Atha kho so bhikkhave puriso bhīto catunnaṃ āsivisānaṃ uggatejānaṃ ghoravisānaṃ, bhīto pañcannaṃ vadhakānaṃ paccatthikānaṃ, bhīto chaṭṭhassa antaracarassa vadhakassa ukkhittāsikassa yena vā tena vā palāyetha.  So passeyya suññaṃ gāmaṃ: yaññad eva gharaṃ paviseyya rittakañ ñeva paviseyya, tucchakañ ñeva paviseyya, suññakañ ñeva paviseyya, yaññad eva bhājanaṃ parimaseyya, rittakañ ñeva parimaseyya, tucchakañ ñeva parimaseyya, suññakañ ñeva parimaseyya. Tam enaṃ evaṃ vadeyyuṃ: idān' ambho purisa, imaṃ suññaṃ gāmaṃ corā gāmaghātakā vadhissanti. Yan te ambho purisa, karaṇīyaṃ taṃ karohīti.

[PTS Page 174] Atha kho so bhikkhave puriso bhīto catunnaṃ āsivisānaṃ uggatejānaṃ ghoravisānaṃ, bhīto pañcannaṃ vadhakānaṃ paccatthikānaṃ, bhīto chaṭṭhassa antaracarassa vadhakassa ukkhittāsikassa, bhīto corānaṃ gāmaghātakānaṃ yena vā tena vā palāyetha. So passeyya mahantaṃ udakaṇṇavaṃ, orimaṃ tīraṃ sāsaṅkaṃ sappaṭibhayaṃ pārimaṃ tīraṃ khemaṃ appaṭibhayaṃ. Na cassa nāvā santāraṇī uttarasetu vā aparā pāraṃ gamanāya.

Atha kho bhikkhave tassa purisassa evamassa: 'ayaṃ kho mahā udakaṇṇavo, orimañ ca tīraṃ sāsaṅkaṃ sappaṭibhayaṃ, pārimaṃ tīraṃ khemaṃ appaṭibhayaṃ; natthi ca nāvā santāraṇī uttarasetu vā aparā pāraṃ gamanāya, yannūnāhaṃ tiṇakaṭṭhasākhāpalāsaṃ saṃkaḍḍhitvā kullaṃ bandhitvā taṃ kullaṃ nissāya hatthehi ca pādehi ca vāyamamāno sotthinā pāraṃ gaccheyyan ti. 

Atha kho so bhikkhave puriso tiṇakaṭṭhasākhāpalāsaṃ saṃkaḍḍhitvā kullaṃ bandhitvā taṃ kullaṃ nissāya hatthehi ca pādehi ca vāyamamāno sotthinā pāraṃ gaccheyya, tiṇṇo pāragato thale tiṭṭhati brāhmaṇo.

Upamā kho myāyaṃ bhikkhave katā atthassa viññāpanatthāya, ayañ cevettha attho: cattāro āsivisā uggatejā ghoravisā ti kho bhikkhave, catunnetaṃ mahābhūtānaṃ adhivacanaṃ, paṭhavidhātuyā āpodhātuyā tejodhātuyā vāyodhātuyā.

Pañca vadhakā paccatthikā ti kho bhikkhave, pañcannetaṃ upādānakkhandhānaṃ adhivacanaṃ, seyyathīdaṃ: rūpupādānakkhandhassa, vedanupādānakkhandhassa, saññupādānakkhandhassa, saṅkhārupādānakkhandhassa viññāṇupādānakkhandhassa.

Chaṭṭho antaracaro vadhako ukkhittāsiko ti kho bhikkhave, nandīrāgassetaṃ adhivacanaṃ.

Suñño gāmo ti kho bhikkhave, channetaṃ ajjhattikānaṃ āyatanānaṃ adhivacanaṃ.  Cakkhuto ce pi naṃ bhikkhave paṇḍito vyatto medhāvi upaparikkhati, rittakañ ñeva khāyati, tucchakañ ñeva [PTS Page 175] khāyati, suññakañ ñeva khāyati.

Sotato cepi naṃ bhikkhave paṇḍito vyatto medhāvi upaparikkhati, rittakañ ñeva khāyati, tucchakañ ñeva khāyati, suññakañ ñeva khāyati.

Ghānato cepi naṃ bhikkhave paṇḍito vyatto medhāvi upaparikkhati, rittakañ ñeva khāyati, tucchakañ ñeva khāyati, suññakañ ñeva khāyati.

Jivhāto cepi naṃ bhikkhave paṇḍito vyatto medhāvi upaparikkhati, rittakañ ñeva khāyati, tucchakañ ñeva khāyati, suññakañ ñeva khāyati.

Kāyako cepi naṃ bhikkhave paṇḍito vyatto medhāvi upaparikkhati, rittakañ ñeva khāyati, tucchakañ ñeva khāyati, suññakañ ñeva khāyati.

Manato cepi naṃ bhikkhave paṇḍito vyatto medhāvi upaparikkhati, rittakañ ñeva khāyati, tucchakañ ñeva khāyati, suññakañ ñeva khāyati.

Corā gāmaghātakā ti kho bhikkhave, channetaṃ bāhirānaṃ āyatanānaṃ adhivacanaṃ. Cakkhu bhikkhave haññati manāpāmanāpesu rūpesu, sotaṃ haññati manāpāmanāpesu saddesu, ghānaṃ haññati manāpāmanāpesu gandhesu, jivhā haññati manāpāmanāpesu rasesu, kāyo haññatī manāpāmanāpesu phoṭṭhabbesu. Mano haññati manāpāmanāpesu dhammesu.

Mahāudakaṇṇavo ti kho bhikkhave, catunnetaṃ oghānaṃ adhivacanaṃ: kāmoghassa, bhavoghassa, diṭṭhoghassa, avijjoghassa. Orimaṃ tīraṃ sāsaṅkaṃ sappaṭibhayan ti kho bhikkhave sakkāyassetaṃ adhivacanaṃ. Pārimaṃ tīraṃ khemaṃ appaṭibhayan ti kho bhikkhave, nibbānassetaṃ adhivacanaṃ. Kullan ti kho bhikkhave, ariyassetaṃ aṭṭhaṅgikassa maggassa adhivacanaṃ, seyyathīdaṃ: sammādiṭṭhiyā sammāsaṅkappassa sammāvācāya sammākammantassa, sammāājīvassa, sammāvāyāmassa, sammāsatiyā, sammāsamādhissa.

Hatthehi ca pādehi ca vāyamamāno ti kho bhikkhave viriyārambhassetaṃ adhivacanaṃ.

Tiṇṇo pāragato thale tiṭṭhati brāhmaṇo ti kho bhikkhave, arahato etaṃ adhivacananti.

238 (1) The Simile of the Vipers

"Bhikkhus, suppose there were four vipers of fierce heat and deadly venom. Then a man would come along wanting to live, not wanting to die, desiring happiness and averse to suffering. They would tell him: 'Good man, these four vipers are of fierce heat and deadly venom. [173] From time to time they must be lifted up; from time to time they must be bathed; from time to time they must be fed; from time to time they must be laid to rest. But if one or another of these vipers ever becomes angry with you, then, good man, you will meet death or deadly suffering. Do whatever has to be done, good man!'

"Then, bhikkhus, afraid of the four vipers of fierce heat and deadly venom, that man would flee in one direction or another. They would tell him: 'Good man, five murderous enemies are pursuing you, thinking, "Wherever we see him, we will take his life right on the spot." Do whatever has to be done, good man!'

"Then, bhikkhus, afraid of the four vipers of fierce heat and deadly venom, and of the five murderous enemies, that man would flee in one direction or another. They would tell him: 'Good man, a sixth murderer, an intimate companion,175 is pursuing you with drawn sword, thinking, "Wherever I see him I will cut off his head right on the spot." Do whatever has to be done, good man!'

"Then, bhikkhus, afraid of the four vipers of fierce heat and deadly venom, and of the five murderous enemies, and of the sixth murderer, the intimate companion with drawn sword, that man would flee in one direction or another. He would see an empty village. Whatever house he enters is void, deserted, empty. Whatever pot he takes hold of is void, hollow, empty. They would tell him: 'Good man, just now village-attacking dacoits will raid176 this empty village. Do whatever has to be done, good man!' [174]

Then, bhikkhus, afraid of the four vipers of fierce heat and deadly venom, and of the five murderous enemies, and of the sixth murderer—the intimate companion with drawn sword— and of the village-attacking dacoits, that man would flee in one direction or another. He would see a great expanse of water whose near shore was dangerous and fearful, and whose further shore was safe and free from danger, but there would be no ferryboat or bridge for crossing over from the near shore to the far shore.

"Then the man would think: "There is this great expanse of water whose near shore is dangerous and fearful, and whose further shore is safe and free from danger, but there is no ferryboat or bridge for crossing over. Let me collect grass, twigs, branches, and foliage, and bind them together into a raft, so that by means of that raft, making an effort with my hands and feet, I can get safely across to the far shore.'

"Then the man would collect grass, twigs, branches, and foliage, and bind them together into a raft, so that by means of that raft, making an effort with his hands and feet, he would get safely across to the far shore. Crossed over, gone beyond, the brahmin stands on high ground.

"I have made up this simile, bhikkhus, in order to convey a meaning. This is the meaning here: "The four vipers of fierce heat and deadly venom': this is a designation for the four great elements—the earth element, the water element, the heat element, the air element.

"The five murderous enemies': this is a designation for the five aggregates subject to clinging; that is, the material form aggregate subject to clinging, the feeling aggregate subject to clinging, the perception aggregate subject to clinging, the volitional formations aggregate subject to clinging, the consciousness aggregate subject to clinging.180
"The sixth murderer, the intimate companion with drawn sword': this is a designation for delight and lust.181
"The empty village': this is a designation for the six internal sense bases. If, bhikkhus, a wise, competent, intelligent person examines them by way of the eye, they appear to be void, hollow, [175] empty. If he examines them by way of the ear ... by way of the mind, they appear to be void, hollow, empty.

"'Village-attacking dacoits': this is a designation for the six external sense bases. The eye, bhikkhus, is attacked by agreeable and disagreeable forms. The ear ... The nose ... The tongue ... The body ... The mind is attacked by agreeable and disagreeable mental phenomena.

"The great expanse of water': this is a designation for the four floods: the flood of sensuality, the flood of existence, the flood of views, and the flood of ignorance.

"The near shore, which is dangerous and fearful': this is a designation for identity.

"The further shore, which is safe and free from danger': this is a designation for Nibbana.

"'The raft': this is a designation for the Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.

"'Making effort with hands and feet': this is a designation for the arousing of energy.

"'Crossed over, gone beyond, the brahmin stands on high ground': this is a designation for the arahant."

[Übersetzung: The connected discourses of the Buddha : a new translation of the Samyutta Nikāya / translated from the Pāli by Bhikkhu Bodhi. -- Boston : Wisdom Publications, ©2000. -- ISBN 0861711588. -- Vol. II. -- S. 1237 - 1239. -- {Wenn Sie HIER klicken, können Sie dieses Buch  bei amazon.de bestellen}]

27. Asītiyā sahassānaṃ,
dhammābhisamayo ahu;
satasahassaṃ purisā,
pabbajuṃ therasantike.

27. Achtzigtausend erfassten die Lehre voll, hunderttausend Männer wurden beim Thera Novizen1.

Kommentar:

1 Da der Thera allein war, war nicht die nötige Anzahl von mindestens fünf Mönchen vorhanden für eine Mönchsweihe (upasampadā), wohl aber war die Aufnahme als Novize (pabbajjā) möglich, die jeder einzelne Thera vornehmen kann.

Ausführlich zu den ordensrechtlichen Fragen von Mönchsweihe und Novizenweihe siehe:

Payer, Alois <1944 - >: Vinayamukha : Grundbegriffe der Ordensregeln und des Ordensrechts des Theravāda. -- Teil I. -- (Materialien zu den Grundbegriffen des Buddhismus). -- URL: http://www.payer.de/buddhgrund/vinaya01.htm

28. Tato pabhuti Kasmīra-
gandhāra te idāni pi;
āsuṃ kāsāyapajjotā,
vatthuttayaparāyanā.

28. Seit damals leuchten Kasmīra und Gandhāra von fahlen Roben1 und gründen im dreifachen Fundament2.

Kommentar:

1 d.h. Angehörigen des buddhistischen Ordens


Abb.: fahle Roben: Mönch in Sri Lanka
[Bildquelle: Wikipedia]
 

2 d.i. Buddha, Buddhalehre (dhamma), Gemeinschaft der Erlösten (saṅgha).


2A. Exkurs: Bericht über Bekehrung Kaśmīra's im tibetischen Mūlasarvāstivāda-Vinaya (Dulva)


"Madhyāntika thought, " My master ordered me to introduce the doctrine into Kashmir, (for) the Blessed One has predicted that there would be a bhikṣu called Madhyāntika who, having conquered the malicious nāga Hulunta in Kashmir, would introduce the doctrine. I will accomplish the purpose of the teacher." So the venerable Madhyāntika went to the Kashmir country and sat down cross-legged. Then he thought, " To conquer the nāgas of Kashmir, if I can but trouble them, I will be able to subdue them." So he composed his mind in deep meditation, and the Kashmir country trembled in six ways. The nāgas were troubled, they panted violently, and having caused rain to fall in torrents, they tried to injure the sthavira, but he remained deep in the perfect composure of the profound meditation ot mercy; so these nāgas were not able to move even the hem of his garment. Then these nāgas rained down arrows, but the sthavira made them reach the ground as beautiful flowers, ulvas, padmas, kumudas, and white lilies. The nāgas commenced to throw at him a string of thunderbolts' and of great arrows, a continuous stream of swords and axes; but as they all fell on the sthavira in a rain of blue lotus flowers, they said, "As one sees those summits of a glacier remain unchanged though struck by the rays of the sun, those summits of mountains on which all is harmless, so the drenching rain fell as a shower of various flowers, and the rain of arrows falling from the sky has become garlands of flowers !"

As he (Madhyāntika) was in the state of perfect composure of the profound meditation of mercy, the fire (of the thunderbolts) did not burn his body, nor did the weapons or poison harm it; so the nāgas were astonished. Then the nāgas went nigh unto the sthavira and spake to him, saying, "Venerable one, what would you?" The sthavira said, " Give me this place." " A stone is not much of an offering!" the nāgas replied." The Blessed One has predicted," the sthavira rejoined, "that this place would be mine. This Kaśmīra country, being a good place for meditation, henceforth it is mine."

The nāgas said, " Did the Blessed One say so ?"

" He did," answered the sthavira.

" Sthavira," said the nagns, " how much (land) shall be offered (to you) ?"

" As much as I cover when seated cross-legged."

" So be it, Venerable One," the nāgas replied.

Then the sthavira sat down cross-legged (f. 689"), and (down to) the lower ends of the nine valleys (all the land) was covered by (him) sitting cross-legged.

The nāgas asked him, " Sthavira, how many followers have you ?"

The sthavira thought, " How many bhikṣus shall I get together ? I will have the five hundred arhats (who were converted with me)." So he said, " Five hundred arhats."

" So be it," the nāgas said; " but if a single arhat out of the number is wanting, then we will take back the Kashmir country."

Madhyāntika said to the nāgas of Kashmir, " Notwithstanding, there must be people who give when there are persons who (live on what they) receive, so I must introduce householders (here);" and to this the nāgas gave their consent.


Abb.: Safran (Crocus sativus)
[Bildquelle: Wikipedia]

When the sthavira had made by himself villages, towns, and provinces, he settled large numbers of people (in them), but they said to him, " Sthavira, how can we develop our prosperity ?" Then the sthavira took the people with him to the Gandhamādana (slios-kyis vgad-ldan) mountain and said, " Pull up saffron!" (f. 689''). Then the nāgas of Movint Gandhamādana were angered, but the sthavira having subdued them, they asked, " How long will the doctriue of the Blessed One endure ?" "A thousand years," answered the sthavira. Then thay made him this promise, "As long as the teaching of the Blessed One endures, so long will we allow you (to take saffron plant from here)." So when the sthavira had planted the saffron in Kashmir, he blessed it (and it prospered).


Abb.: Getrocknete Safranfäden
[Bildquelle. Wikipedia]

When the sthavira Madhyāntika had introduced the doctrine of the Blessed One into Kashmir, he spread it abroad, and having gladdened the hearts of the charitable and virtuous, and having shown different miracles, he passed away as water when thrown on fire. After that his body had been burnt with the best of sandal-wood, aloe-wood, and other kinds of wood, it was placed in a caitya which was built (for that purpose)."

[Quelle: The Life of the Buddha and the early history of his order : derived from Tibetan works in the Bkah-hgyur and Bstan-hgyur followed by notices on the early history of Tibet and Khoten / translated by W. [William] Woodville Rockhill <1854 - 1914>. -- London : K. Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1907.  -- XII, 273 S. ; 22 cm.. -- S. 167 - 170.]


3. Mahādeva's Mission in Mahisamandala


29. Gantvā Mahādevatthero,
desaṃ Mahisamaṇḍalaṃ;
suttantaṃ devadūtaṃ taṃ,
kathesi janamajjhago.

29. Als der Thera Mahādeva1 ins Land Mahisamaṇḍala2 gekommen war lehrte er dort inmitten des Volkes die Lehrrede von den Götterboten3.

Kommentar:

1 Mahādeva

"Mahādeva Thera. He conferred the pabbajā ordination on Mahinda (Mhv.v.206; Dpv.vii.25). After the Third Council he went as apostle to Mahisamandala, where he preached the Devadūta Sutta, converting forty thousand people and conferring ordination on forty thousand more. Mhv.xii.3, 29; Dpv.viii.5; Sp.i.66."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

2 Mahisamaṇḍala vermutlich heutige Mysore-Region (ಮೈಸೂರು)


Abb.: Vermutete Lage von Mahisamandala (©MS Encarta)


Abb.: Landschaft in Mysore
[Bildquelle: Thejo. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/thejo/115865682/in/set-72057594087319909/. -- Creative Commons Lizenz. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-27]

"Mahisamaṇḍala

A country, converted by the Thera Mahādeva, who preached there the Devadūta Sutta (Mhv.xii.4, 29; Dpv. viii.5; Sp.i.63).

The country is generally regarded as the modern Mysore. v.l. Mahimsamandala.

But see J. R.A.S.1910, 429ff., where the author says that Māhissati was its capital and that it was an island in the Narbadā River; see also Mhv.Trs.84, n.5."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

"The Kingdom of Mysore [ಮೈಸೂರು] was a kingdom of southern India, which was founded about AD 1400 by the Wodeyar dynasty, who ruled the state until the independence of India in 1947, when the kingdom was merged with the Union of India.

Early history

The kingdom originated as a small state based in the city of Mysore, and was established by two brothers, Vijaya and Krisha Wodeyar. It remained a kingdom tributary to the Vijayanagara empire until the collapse of the latter in the second half of the 16th century. In common with every other feudatory of that Empire, Mysore, under the Wodeyar dynasty, then assumed the trappings of independence. It was in the reign of Raja Wodeyar and his successor, the celebrated Kantheerava, in the mid-1600's, that the kingdom really asserted its independence, and expanded to include most of the southern part of modern-day Karnataka [ಕನಾ೯ಟಕ], as also parts of neighbouring states.

The Arasus of Kalale

After Chamaraja Wodeyar VI, the failure of the direct male line not only necessitated the adoption of an heir, but also precipitated a minority. The Arasus (feudal barons) of Kalale came to hold sway over the affairs of the Kingdom of Mysore, and the position of "Dalavoy" or supreme commander of the Royal army, became effectively hereditary to that family. The situation was compounded by extensive intermarriage between the royal family of Mysore and that of the Arasus of Kalale. The influence of the family is regarded as having been benign, given the continuance of the legitimate dynasty, as also the similarity and alliance between the two families. This influence continued even into the 20th century; HH Maharani Kempa Nanjammani Vani Vilasa Sannidhana Avaru, regent of Mysore (1894-1902) and mother of HH Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV, hailed from this family.

Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan

During this period, Hyder Ali, who joined the army as a foot soldier, came to prominence. By many accounts, he enjoyed the confidence of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, and hence essayed a meteoric rise in the affairs of the Kingdom. During the minority of Maharaja Nanjaraja Wodeyar, Hyder Ali rose to become the de facto ruler of the state, retaining the Wodeyars as nominal rulers. His son Tipu Sultan dispensed with this charade and assumed full royal powers. Tipu Sultan prosecuted a brilliant military career; his rule contributed a golden chapter to the history of India. Both Hyder and Tipu brought in many technological innovations, modernizing the Mysorean army and expanding Mysore's foreign trade. They also aligned themselves by and large with the French, whose French East India Company [Compagnie des Indes Orientales] was politically very active in southern India at the time. By the end of the eighteenth century, the Mysore Kingdom found itself in a series of four wars with the British East India Company, which was then expanding its control in India. In 1799 Tipu Sultan was finally defeated by the British in the fourth Mysore War, led by Arthur Wellesley, the future 1st Duke of Wellington. The British, who purported to wage that war in support of the legitimate dynasty, reinstated the Wodeyars on the throne in the person of the 5-year-old Krishnaraja Wodeyar III.

The British Period

After the final defeat of Tipu Sultan, the British annexed a large part of Mysore state, the remainder becoming a princely state in British India. The 5 year old Krishnaraja Wodeyar III ascended the throne under the regency of his adoptive grandmother, HH Maharani Lakshmi Ammani Avaru, relict of HH Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III. Diwan Purnaiya was appointed diwan or first minister.

The capital was moved to Bangalore [ಬೆಂಗಳೂರು] in 1830. Charging the Wodeyars with financial mismanagement, the British took direct control of Mysore in 1831 and retained it for half a century. This act manifests the greed for land that characterised the British East India Company in the run up to the indian rebellion of 1857, and is of a piece with its annexation, in the same period, of other princely states like Thanjavur, Satara, Sind, Avadh and Jhansi. The Maharaja chose to argue his case in British courts, and a favourable verdict resulted in the Rendition of 1881, which restored the Wodeyar dynasty to the throne. Mysore again took its place as one of the three highest-ranking princely states in India. For the next seventy years, Mysore enjoyed the reputation of being a model state.

A New Era

India became independent on 15 August 1947, and a new republican order was established. All the princely states were merged with the Union of India, and provinces were later reorganised on the basis of language. Inevitably, the kingdom of Mysore lost its distinct identity. HH Maharaja Jayachamaraja Wodeyar, signed the Instrument of Accession on 9 August, 1947 and the state acceded to the Dominion of India. With the merger of Mysore with the Union of India, the reign of the Wodeyars came to an end. The kingdom initially became a separate state within the Union of India and in 1956 Kannada-speaking areas belonging until then to the neighbouring provinces of Madras, Bombay and Hyderabad were merged with Mysore to create a Kannada-speaking state that retained the former name. The name of the state was changed to Karnataka in 1973.

Inscriptions

Kannada inscriptions deciphered and recorded from the rule of Mysore kings can be found at the web site provided by Archeological Survey of India http://inscriptions.whatisindia.com (vol. 9,17 & 18)"

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-06]

3 Lehrrede von den Götterboten (Devadūta-Sutta) = Anguttaranikāya I, 138f., ausführlicher Majjhimanikāya III, 178ff.

36. Tīṇi 'māni bhikkhave devadutāni. Katamāni tīṇi: idha bhikkhave ekacco kāyena duccaritaṃ carati, vācāya duccaritaṃ carati, manasā duccaritaṃ carati. So kāyena duccaritaṃ caritvā vācāya duccaritaṃ caritvā manasā duccaritaṃ caritvā kāyassa bhedā param maraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjati. Tam enaṃ bhikkhave nirayapālā nānābāhāsu gahetvā yamassa rañño dassenti: 'ayaṃ deva puriso amatteyyo apetteyyo asāmañño abrahmañño, na kulejeṭṭhāpacāyī, imassa devo daṇḍaṃ paṇetu' ti.

Tam enaṃ bhikkhave yamo rājā paṭhamaṃ devadūtaṃ samanuyuñjati, samanugāhati, samanubhāsati: 'ambho purisa, na tvaṃ addasa manussesu paṭhamaṃ devadūtaṃ pātubhūtan ti. So evam āha: 'nāddasaṃ bhante' ti.

Tam enaṃ bhikkhave yamo rājā evam āha: 'ambho purisa, na tvaṃ addasa manussesu itthiṃ vā purisaṃ vā āsītikaṃ vā nāvutikaṃ vā vassasatikaṃ vā jātiyā, jiṇṇaṃ gopānasivaṅkaṃ bhoggaṃ daṇḍaparāyanaṃ pavedhamānaṃ gacchantaṃ āturaṃ gatayobbanaṃ khaṇḍadantaṃ palitakesaṃ vilūnaṃ khalitaṃsiro valitaṃ tilakāhatagattan ti. So evam āha: nāddasaṃ bhante ti.

Tam enaṃ bhikkhave yamo rājā evam āha: 'ambho purisa, tassa te viññussa sato mahallakassa na etad ahosi: 'aham pi kho mhi jarādhammo jaraṃ anatīto, handāhaṃ kalyāṇaṃ karomi kāyena vācāya manasā ti?. [PTS Page 139] 'so evam āha: 'nāsakkhissaṃ bhante, pamādassaṃ bhante' ti.

Tam enaṃ bhikkhave yamo rājā evam āha: 'ambho purisa, pamādavatāya na kalyāṇam akāsi kāyena vācāya manasā. Taggha tvaṃ ambho purisa, tathā karissanti yathā taṃ pamattaṃ. Taṃ kho panetaṃ pāpaṃ kammaṃ neva mātarā kataṃ, na pitarā kataṃ, na bhātarā kataṃ, na bhaginiyā kataṃ, na mittāmaccehi kataṃ, na ñātisālohitehi kataṃ, na devatāhi kataṃ, na samaṇabrāhmaṇehi kataṃ. Atha kho tayā vetaṃ pāpaṃ kammaṃ kataṃ, tvañ ñevetassa vipākaṃ paṭisaṃvedissasī ti.

Tam enaṃ bhikkhave yamo rājā paṭhamaṃ devadūtaṃ samanuyuñjitvā samanugāhitvā samanubhāsitvā dutiyaṃ devadutaṃ samanuyuñjati, samanugāhati, samanubhāsati: 'ambho purisa, na tvaṃ addasa manussesu dutiyaṃ devadūtaṃ pātubhūtan ti?' So evam āha: 'nāddasaṃ bhante' ti. Tam enaṃ bhikkhave yamo rājā evamāha: 'ambho purisa, na tvaṃ addasa manussesu itthiṃ vā purisaṃ vā ābādhikaṃ dukkhitaṃ bāḷhagilānaṃ sake muttakarīse paḷipannaṃ semānaṃ aññehi vuṭṭhāpiyamānaṃ aññehi saṃvesiyamānan ti? So evam āha: 'addasaṃ bhante' ti.

Tam enaṃ bhikkhave yamo rājā evam āha: ambho purisa, tassa te viññussa sato mahallakassa na etad ahosi: aham pi kho mhi vyādhidhammo vyādhiṃ anatīto, handāhaṃ kalyāṇaṃ karomi kāyena vācāya manasā ti. So evam āha: nāsakkhissaṃ bhante, pamādassaṃ bhanteti.

Tam enaṃ bhikkhave yamo rājā evam āha: [PTS Page 140] ambho purisa, pamādavatāya na kalyāṇam akāsi kāyena vācāya manasā. Taggha tvaṃ ambho purisa, tathā karissanti yathā taṃ pamattaṃ; taṃ kho panetaṃ pāpaṃ kammaṃ neva mātarā kataṃ, na pitarā kataṃ, na bhātarā kataṃ, na bhaginiyā kataṃ, na mittāmaccehi kataṃ, na ñātisālohitehi kataṃ, na devatāhi kataṃ, na samaṇabrāhmaṇehi kataṃ. Atha kho tayā vetaṃ pāpaṃ kammaṃ kataṃ, tvañ ñevetassa vipākaṃ paṭisaṃvedissasī ti.

Tam enaṃ bhikkhave yamo rājā dutiyaṃ devadūtaṃ samanuyuñjitvā samanugāhitvā samanubhāsitvā tatiyaṃ devadutaṃ samanuyuñjati, samanugāhati, samanubhāsati: 'ambho purisa, na tvaṃ addasa manussesu tatiyaṃ devadūtaṃ pātubhūtan ti?' So evam āha: 'nāddasaṃ bhante' ti. Tam enaṃ bhikkhave yamo rājā evam āha: 'ambho purisa, na tvaṃ addasa manussesu itthiṃ vā purisaṃ vā ekāhamataṃ vā dvīhamataṃ vā tīhamataṃ vā uddhumātakaṃ vinīlakaṃ vipubbakajātan ti?. So evam āha: 'addasaṃ bhante' ti. Tam enaṃ bhikkhave yamo rājā evam āha: 'ambho purisa, tassa te viññussa sato mahallakassa na etad ahosi: 'aham pi kho mhi maraṇadhammo, maraṇaṃ anatīto, handāhaṃ kalyāṇaṃ karomi kāyena vācāya manasā' ti. So evamāha: 'nāsakkhissaṃ bhante, pamādassaṃ bhante' ti. Tam enaṃ bhikkhave yamo rājā evam āha: 'ambho purisa, pamādavatāya na kalyāṇam akāsi kāyena vācāya manasā. Taggha tvaṃ ambho purisa, tathā karissanti yathā taṃ pamattaṃ. Taṃ kho panetaṃ pāpaṃ kammaṃ neva mātarā kataṃ na pitarā kataṃ na bhātarā kataṃ na bhaginiyā kataṃ na mittāmaccehi kataṃ na ñātisālohitehi kataṃ na devatāhi kataṃ na samaṇabrāhmaṇehi kataṃ. Atha kho tayā vetaṃ pāpaṃ kammaṃ kataṃ, tvañ ñevetassa vipākaṃ paṭisaṃvedissasī'ti.

Tam enaṃ bhikkhave yamo rājā tatiyaṃ devadūtaṃ samanuyuñjitvā samanugāhitvā samanubhāsitvā tuṇhī hoti. [PTS Page 141] tam enaṃ bhikkhave nirayapālā pañcavidhabandhanaṃ nāma kāraṇaṃ karonti, tattaṃ ayokhīlaṃ hatthe gamenti, tattaṃ ayokhīlaṃ dutiyasmiṃ hatthe gamenti. Tattaṃ ayokhīlaṃ pāde gamenti, tattaṃ ayokhīlaṃ dutiyasmiṃ pāde gamenti, tattaṃ ayokhīlaṃ majjhe urasmiṃ gamenti. So tattha dukkhā tibbā kaṭukā vedanā vediyati. Na ca tāva kālaṃ karoti, yāva na taṃ pāpaṃ kammaṃ byantīhoti.

Tam enaṃ bhikkhave nirayapālā saṃvesetvā kuṭhārīhi tacchanti. So tattha dukkhā tibbā kaṭukā vedanā vediyati. Na ca tāva kālaṃ karoti, yāva na taṃ pāpaṃ kammaṃ byantīhoti. Tam enaṃ bhikkhave nirayapālā uddhapādaṃ adhosiraṃ ṭhapetvā vāsīhi tacchanti. So tattha dukkhā tibbā kaṭukā vedanā vediyati. Na ca tāva kālaṃ karoti, yāva na taṃ pāpaṃ kammaṃ byantīhoti.

Tam enaṃ bhikkhave nirayapālā rathe yojetvā ādittāya bhūmiyā sampajjalitāya sajotibhūtāya sārentipi, paccāsārentipi so tattha dukkhā tibbā kaṭukā vedanā vediyati. Na ca tāva kālaṃ karoti, yāva na taṃ pāpaṃ kammaṃ byantīhoti.

Tam enaṃ bhikkhave nirayapālā mahantaṃ aṅgārapabbataṃ ādittaṃ sampajjalitaṃ sajotibhūtaṃ āropenti pi oropenti pi. Tam enaṃ bhikkhave nirayapālā uddhapādaṃ adhosiraṃ gahetvā tattāya lohakumbhiyā pakkhipanti ādittāya sampajjalitāya sajotibhūtāya. So tattha pheṇuddehakaṃ paccati. So tattha pheṇuddehakaṃ paccamāno sakim pi uddhaṃ gacchati, sakim pi adho gacchati, sakim pi tiriyaṃ gacchati. So tattha dukkhā tibbā kaṭukā vedanā vediyati. Na ca tāva kālaṃ karoti, yāva na taṃ pāpaṃ kammaṃ byantīhoti.

Tam enaṃ bhikkhave nirayapālā mahāniraye pakkhipanti. So kho pana bhikkhave mahānirayo-:

26. Catukkaṇṇo catudvāro
vibhatto bhāgaso mito,
Ayopākārapariyanto
ayasā paṭikujjito.

27. Tassa ayomayā bhūmi
jalitā tejasā yutā,
Samantā yojanasataṃ
pharitvā tiṭṭhati sabbadā ti

 

"36 Die drei Götterboten

Drei Götterboten gibt es, ihr Mönche. Welche drei?

Da führt einer einen schlechten Wandel in Werken, einen schlechten Wandel in Worten, einen schlechten Wandel in Gedanken. Solch schlechten Wandel führend, gerät er beim Zerfall des Körpers, nach dem Tode, in niedere Welt, auf eine Leidensfährte, in Daseinsabgründe, in die Hölle. Und die Höllenwächter, ihr Mönche, packen ihn an beiden Armen und bringen ihn vor den König Yama mit den Worten: 'Dieser Mensch, o Herr, hatte keine Ehrfurcht vor seinen Eltern, keine Ehrfurcht vor Asketen und Brahmanen, achtete nicht die Ältesten in der Familie. Möge ihm der Herr Strafe auferlegen!'

(1.) Und der König Yama, ihr Mönche, fragte, forschte und hörte ihn über den ersten Götterboten aus: 'O Mensch, sahest du nicht unter den Menschen den ersten Götterboten erscheinen?'

Er aber sprach: 'Herr, ich sah ihn nicht.'

Und König Yama sprach zu ihm: 'O Mensch, sahest du nie unter den Menschen eine Frau oder einen Mann im Alter von achtzig, neunzig oder hundert Jahren, abgelebt, gekrümmt wie Dachsparren, gebückt, auf eine Krücke gestützt, schlotternden Ganges dahinschleichend, siech, mit verwelkter Jugend, mit abgebrochenen Zähnen und ergrautem Haar, oder kahl, mit wackelndem Kopfe, voller Runzeln, die Glieder mit Flecken bedeckt?'

'Ja, o Herr, solche habe ich gesehen.'

Und der König Yama sprach: 'Und dachtest du nicht daran, o Mensch, der du Verstand besitzest und alt genug bist: »Auch ich bin dem Alter unterworfen, kann dem Alter nicht entgehen. So lass mich denn Gutes tun in Werken, Worten und Gedanken«?'

Jener aber sprach: 'O Herr, ich war außerstande! O Herr, ich war leichtsinnig!'

Und der König Yama sprach: 'O Mensch, aus Leichtsinn hast du weder in Werken, noch Worten, noch Gedanken Gutes getan. Wahrlich, gemäß deinem Leichtsinn wird man's dir vergelten. Denn jene schlechte Tat wurde weder von deiner Mutter begangen, noch deinem Vater, noch deinem Bruder, noch deiner Schwester, noch von deinen Freunden und Genossen, noch deinen Vettern und Blutsverwandten, noch von Götterwesen, Asketen oder Priestern. Du allein hast jene schlechte Tat begangen, du allein wirst deren Frucht erfahren.'

(2.) Als nun, ihr Mönche, der König Yama ihn über den ersten Götterboten ausgefragt, ausgeforscht und ausgehorcht hatte, fragte, forschte und horchte er ihn über den zweiten Götterboten aus: 'O Mensch, sahest du nicht unter den Menschen den zweiten Götterboten erscheinen?'

Er aber sprach: 'Herr, ich sah ihn nicht.'

Und der König Yama sprach zu ihm: 'O Mensch, sahest du nie unter den Menschen eine Frau oder einen Mann, krank, elend, schwer leidend, sich im eigenen Kot und Urin herumwälzend, die von dem einen aufgerichtet, von einem anderen wieder ins Bett gelegt wurden?'

'Ja, o Herr, ich habe solche gesehen.'

Und der König Yama sprach zu ihm: 'Und dachtest du nicht, o Mensch, der du Verstand besitzest und alt genug bist: »Auch ich bin der Krankheit unterworfen, kann der Krankheit nicht entgehen. So lass mich denn Gutes tun in Werken, Worten und Gedanken«?'

Jener aber sprach: 'O Herr, ich war außerstande! O Herr, ich war leichtsinnig!'

'O Mensch, aus Leichtsinn hast du weder in Werken, noch Worten, noch Gedanken Gutes getan. Wahrlich, o Mensch, gemäß deinem Leichtsinn wird man's dir vergelten. Denn jene schlechte Tat wurde weder von deiner Mutter begangen, noch deinem Vater, noch deinem Bruder, noch deiner Schwester, noch von deinen Freunden und Genossen, noch deinen Vettern und Blutsverwandten, noch von Götterwesen, Asketen oder Priestern. Du allein hast jene schlechte Tat begangen, du allein wirst deren Frucht erfahren.'

(3.) Als nun, ihr Mönche, der König Yama ihn über den zweiten Götterboten ausgefragt, ausgeforscht und ausgehorcht hatte, fragte, forschte und horchte er ihn über den dritten Götterboten aus: 'O Mensch, sahest du nicht unter den Menschen eine Frau oder einen Mann einen oder zwei oder drei Tage nach dem Tode, aufgeschwollen, von blauschwarzer Farbe, mit Eiter bedeckt?'

'Ja, o Herr, ich habe solche gesehen.'

'Und dachtest du nicht, o Mensch, der du Verstand besitzest und alt genug bist: »Auch ich bin dem Tode unterworfen, kann dem Tode nicht entgehen. So lass mich denn Gutes tun in Werken, Worten und Gedanken«?'
'O Herr, ich war außerstande! O Herr, ich war leichtsinnig!'

'O Mensch, aus Leichtsinn hast du weder in Werken, noch Worten, noch Gedanken Gutes getan. Wahrlich, o Mensch, gemäß deinem Leichtsinn wird man's dir vergelten. Denn jene schlechte Tat wurde weder von deiner Mutter begangen, noch von deinem Vater, noch von deinem Bruder, noch von deiner Schwester, noch von deinen Freunden und Genossen, noch deinen Vettern und Blutsverwandten, noch von Götterwesen, Asketen oder Priestern. Du allein hast jene schlechte Tat begangen, du allein wirst deren Frucht erfahren.'
Als nun, ihr Mönche, der König Yama ihn über den dritten Götterboten ausgefragt, ausgeforscht und ausgehorcht hatte, schwieg er.

Und die Höllenwächter, ihr Mönche, foltern ihn dann mit der fünffachen Pfählung: sie treiben ihm eine glühende Eisenstange durch die eine Hand, treiben ihm eine glühende Eisenstange durch die andere Hand, treiben ihm eine glühende Eisenstange durch den einen Fuß, treiben ihm eine glühende Eisenstange durch den anderen Fuß, treiben ihm eine glühende Eisenstange durch die Brust. Dabei empfindet er schmerzhafte, stechende, peinigende Gefühle; doch nicht stirbt er, bevor nicht jene schlechte Tat erschöpft ist.

Darauf legen ihn die Höllenwächter zu Boden und zerhacken ihn mit Beilen. Dabei empfindet er schmerzhafte, stechende und peinigende Gefühle; doch nicht stirbt er, bevor nicht jene schlechte Tat erschöpft ist.

Sodann hängen ihn die Höllenwächter mit den Füßen nach oben und dem Kopf nach unten und zerhacken ihn mit Schwertern. Sie spannen ihn vor einen Wagen und lassen ihn über eine lodernde, flammende, glühende Fläche hin und her laufen. Sie lassen ihn einen großen lodernden, flammenden, glühenden Kohlenberg hinauf und hinab steigen. Sie packen ihn an den Füßen und werfen ihn kopfüber in einen lodernden, flammenden, glühenden Erzkessel. Dort kocht er im aufwallenden Schaume und während er so kocht, treibt er einmal nach oben, einmal nach unten, einmal nach der Seite. Dabei empfindet er schmerzhafte, stechende und peinigende Gefühle; doch er stirbt nicht, bevor nicht jene schlechte Tat erschöpft ist.

Darauf, ihr Mönche, werfen ihn die Höllenwächter in die Erzhölle. Von jener Erzhölle aber heißt es:

»Quadratisch ist sie, hat vier Tore; in Teile ist sie abgesteckt, von einem Eisenwall umgeben, mit einem Eisendach bedeckt.

Aus Eisen auch besteht ihr Boden; der glüht und leuchtet weit und breit, strahlt hundert Meilen rings umher und bleibt für alle Ewigkeit.«"

[Übersetzt von Nyanatiloka: Die Lehrreden des Buddha aus der Angereihten Sammlung = Anguttara-Nikāya / aus dem Pāli übersetzt von Nyanatiloka. -- 3., revidierte Neuauflage. -- Köln : DuMont Schauberg. -- Bd. 1. --  ©1969. -- S. 127 - 130]

30. Cattālīsa sahassāni,
dhammacakkhuṃ visodhayuṃ;
cattālīsa sahassāni,
pabbajiṃsu tadantike.

30. Vierzigtausend reinigten ihr Auge für die Lehre, vierzigtausend wurden bei diesem Thera Novizen.


4. Rakkhita's Mission in Vanavāsa



Abb.: Vermutete Lage von Vanavāsa (©MS Encarta)

31. Gantvāna Rakkhitatthero,
Vanavāsaṃ nabhe ṭhito;
saṃyuttam anamataggaṃ,
kathesi janamajjhago.

31. Als Rakkhita1 nach Vanavāsa2 gekommen war verkündete er inmitten der Leute in der Luft stehend den Anamataggasaṃyutta3.

Kommentar:

1 Rakkhita

"Rakkhita Thera.

He was sent to the Vanavāsa country to convert it at the end of the Third Council. Floating in the air amid the people, he preached the Anamatagga Samyutta. Sixty thousand people embraced the new religion and thirty seven thousand joined the Order, five hundred vihāras being founded. Mhv.xii.4, 31ff.; Dpv.viii.7; Sp.i.63, 66."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

2 Vanavāsa vermutlich die heutige Kanara-Region (Kannaḍa, ಕನ್ನಡ)

"Vanavāsa

A district, probably Northern Kanara, in South India. After the Third Council, Rakkhita Thera was sent there to convert the people, and he preached the Anamatagga Samyutta poised in mid air. It is said that sixty thousand persons embraced the faith, thirty seven thousand joined the Order, while fifty vihāras were established in the country.

Mhv.xii.4, 30f.; Sp.i.63 66; Dpv.viii.6. The Vanavāsī are mentioned in the Mahābhārata (6. 366) and the Harivamsa (5232) as a people of S. India. The Sās (p.12) also mentions a county called Vanavāsī, which, however, is the country round Prome in Lower Burma."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

"The Kanara or Canara region (called Kannada in Karnataka) comprises three districts of Karnataka [ಕನಾ೯ಟಕ] - North Kanara (Uttara Kannada) whose administrative headquarters is Karwar, Udupi, and South Kanara (Dakshina Kannada), whose administrative headquarters is Mangalore [ಮಂಗಳೂರು]. Kanara is bounded on the east by the Western Ghats and on the west by the Arabian Sea. The coastal strip between the Western Ghats and the sea, including Kanara and the state of Goa and coastal Maharashtra to the north, is known as the Konkan coast, while the coast of Kerala is known as the Malabar coast. Kanara is also known as the Karavali coast."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanara. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-08]

"Karnātakā (ಕನಾ೯ಟಕ in Kannada) (IPA: /kəɹnɑːtəkɑː/)

is one of the four southern states of India. The modern state of Karnataka came into existence with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act (1956), with the incorporation of districts under the dominion of Bombay, Hyderabad, Madras state and Coorg within the existing state of Mysore State. Karnataka's capital, Bangalore [ಬೆಂಗಳೂರು], is the only city in the state with a population of more than 6 million. Other major cities include Mysore [ಮೈಸೂರು], Mangalore [ಮಂಗಳೂರು], Hubli-Dharwad, Davanagere [ದಾವಐಗೆರೆ], Bellary and Belgaum. Kannada is the official language of the state. Karnataka is the 8th largest Indian state by area and 9th largest by population.

Neolithic habitation and celts dating back to the 2nd century BCE were first discovered in Karnataka in 1872. Megalithic structures and burial grounds were discovered in 1862 in the regions of Kodagu and Moorey Betta hills. By the third century BCE, most of Karnataka was part of the Mauryan Empire, ruled by Emperor Ashoka. In the first millennium CE, Karnataka was ruled by a series of Jain/Vaishnavite/Hindu Dynasties such as the Kadambas, the Ganga Dynasty and the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas. The Kannada Empire was expanded and consolidated by the Hoysala Empire and further by the Vijayanagara Empire, before the Mughal Conquest in the 18th century. The rule of the state changed hands from the Wodeyars to Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan before being incorporated into the British Raj, at the turn of the 19th century. Karnataka lies in the Deccan Plateau and borders with Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The state has a long standing border dispute with Maharashtra over the status of the district of Belgaum, and a dispute with Tamil Nadu over the release of water from the Kaveri River that flows through both states. A large proportion of Karnataka's economy, India's fifth largest, is agrarian. Bangalore, the third-most populous city in India, accounts for 35 percent of India's software exports, and is also a major base for public sector manufacturing industries. Karnataka is the only exporter of sandalwood in India. Bangalore also has the most amount of tourism of the region. The Kolar Gold Fields (KGF) was once the only producer of gold in the country. The gold mines in KGF are now closed.

Origin of Name

Several etymologies have been suggested for the name Karnataka. One accepted derivative comes from the Kannada words karu and nādu meaning elevated land. During the British Raj, the words Carnatic or Karnatak were used to desribe the region of southern India in general. Another etymological derivative of the name comes from lear or black — a reference to the black cotton soil of the region. The use of the term is of considerable antiquity, mentioned as far back as the fifth century CE, by the astrologer Varaha Mihira. Historically, the names Karnatak or Carnatic have been misapplied to refer to the regions below the Western Ghats (Coorg and Kerala) as well as regions in present day Andhra Pradesh (Telingana). Mysore state was renamed Karnataka in 1973.

History

Evidence of Neolithic habitation of areas in modern Karnataka and celts dating back to the 2nd century BCE were first discovered in 1872. There are reports that a polished stone axe was discovered at Lingsugur in the Raichur district; however the authenticity of these reports remains unverifiable. Megalithic structures and burial grounds were discovered in 1862 in the regions of Kodagu and Moorey Betta hills, while Neolithic sites were discovered in north Karnataka. Scholarly hypothesis postulates of contacts between the Indus Valley city of Harappa in 3000 BCE, citing the discovery of gold found in the Harappan sites that was imported from mines in Karnataka. In the third century BCE, most of Karnataka was part of the Mauryan Empire, ruled by Emperor Ashoka. Rock edicts of Ashoka, written in Prakrit, were discovered in Chirtradurga and Raichur. In the 4th century BCE, a local dynasty called Satavahana came to power and its rule lasted nearly 3 centuries. The disintegration of the Satavahana dynasty led to the ascent of the Banavasi Kadambas(325-540 CE) in north Karnataka, and the Ganga Dynasty (325-550 CE) in the south of the region. These were the first kingdoms to give official status to Kannada language as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription of 450 A.D., attributed to King Kakusthavarma of the Kadamba dynasty. Also, recent discovery of 5th century A.D. copper coin in Banavasi, ancient capital of the Kadambas, with Kannada script inscription on it, further proves the usage of Kannada at an official level.

They continued their rule as fiduciaries of larger empires such as the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas for another six hundred years, during which time Kannada literature and a new style of architecture called the vesara style was born and evolved. Eclectic Chalukyan style temples in Pattadakal, Aihole, Badami, Ellora and Gadag were conceived during this time. Nripa Kama established the Hoysala Empire at the turn of the millennium. Art and architecture flourished in the region during the time that resulted in the construction of temples and sculptures in Halebid and Belur. The expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought parts of modern Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu under their rule. In the 14th century the Vijayanagar Empire was established by Harihara and Bukka Raya, sons of the last Hoysala King Veera Ballala III, with its capital at Hampi. The Vijayanagara Kings fostered traditions and encouraged arts, religion and literature in Sanskrit, Kannada and Telugu. The Bahmani sultans of Gulbarga and the Adil Shahi sultans of Bijapur ruled over the region after the defeat and disintegration of the Vijayanagara Empire in battle. The Bahamani rules encouraged Urdu and Persian literature and Islamic architecture. The Gol Gumbaz was constructed during this time. With the defeat of the Bahmani sultans, the entire region came into the dominion of the Mughal Empire.

The Wodeyars of Mysore, former vassals of the Vijayanagara Empire, leased the state from the Mughal king Aurangzeb in the 15th century. With the death of Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, Haider Ali, the Commander-in-Chief of the Mysore Army, assumed control over the region, until the rule of the kingdom was passed to Tipu Sultan, after Haider Ali's death. In attempting to contain European expansion in South India, Tipu Sultan, known as the Tiger of Mysore fought four significant Anglo-Mysore Wars, the last of which resulted in his death and the incorporation of Mysore into the British Raj. After Indian independence, the Wodeyar Maharaja acceded to India. In 1950, Mysore became an Indian state, and the former Maharaja became its rajpramukh, or governor, until 1975. The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 provided for parts of Coorg, Madras, Hyderabad, and Bombay states to be incorporated into the state of Mysore. Mysore state was renamed Karnataka in 1973.

Geography

Karnataka is situated in the Deccan Plateau and is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, Goa to the northwest, Maharashtra to the north, Andhra Pradesh to the east, Tamil Nadu to the east and southeast, and Kerala to the southwest. It is situated at the angle where the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats of South India converge into the Nilgiri Hills.

The state has three principal physical zones;

  • The coastal strip, between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, which is lowland, with moderate to high rainfall levels. This strip is around 320 km in length and 48-64 km wide.
  • The Western Ghats, a mountain range inland from the Arabian Sea, rising to about 900m average height, and with moderate to high rainfall levels.
  • The Deccan Plateau, comprising the main inland region of the state, which is drier and verging on the semi-arid. The humidity in these plains or maidans never exceeds 50 percent.

Karnataka has one of the highest average elevations of Indian states at 1,500 feet. The highest recorded temperature was 45.6 C (114.08 F) at Raichur on May 23, 1928. The lowest recorded temperature was 2.8 C (37.04 F) at Bidar on December 16, 1918.

Language

Language was the so called basis for the formation of the Indian states after independence and the present day Karnataka was formed by unifying minority Kannada speaking regions from the many districts of erstwhile Madras State (present day Tamil Nadu), erstwhile Bombay presidency (present day Maharashtra) and the erstwhile princely state of Hyderabad (present day Andhra Pradesh) to the former Kingdom of Mysore, known as the Mysore State (post independence) around the years 1950-1957. In 1973, the Mysore State was officially christened as Karnataka. There are a total of 27 districts. The languages of Karnataka are Kannada, Urdu, Kodava Takk, Tulu and Sankethi. Kannada is the official language of the state. Other languages also spoken by linguistic minorities are Marathi, Konkani, Tamil, Telugu, Hindi and Malayalam."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnataka. -- Zugrif am 2006-05-08]

3 Anamataggasamyutta = der fünfzehnte Großabschnitt des Samyuttanikāya (II, 178 - 193): es ist eine Sammlung über den nicht berechenbaren Anfang des Samsāra.

Es folgen einige der Lehrreden aus diesem Samyutta in der Übersetzung von Bhikkhu Thanissaro (geb. 1949):

Assusuttaṃ

266. Sāvatthiyaṃ-

Anamataggo yaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. ''Dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, dukkhaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ''. Taṃ kiṃ maññatha bhikkhave, kataman nu kho bahutaraṃ yaṃ vā kho iminā dīghena addhunā sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ amanāpasampayogā manāpavippayogā kandantānaṃ rudantānaṃ assupassannaṃ paggharitaṃ, yaṃ vā catusu mahāsamuddesu udakan ti?

''Yathā kho mayaṃ bhante, bhagavatā dhammaṃ desitaṃ ājānāma, etad eva bhante, bahutaraṃ yaṃ no iminā dīghena addhunā sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ amanāpasampayogā manāpavippayogā kandantānaṃ rudantānaṃ assupassannaṃ paggharitaṃ, na tv eva catusu mahāsamuddesu udakan ti.

Sādhu sādhu bhikkhave, sādhu kho me tumhe bhikkhave, evaṃ dhammaṃ desitaṃ ājānātha. Etad eva bhikkhave, bahutaraṃ yaṃ vo iminā dīghena addhunā sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ amanāpasampayogā manāpavippayogā kandantānaṃ rudantānaṃ assu passannaṃ paggharitaṃ, na tv eva catusu mahāsamuddesu udakaṃ.

Dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, mātumaraṇaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ. Etad eva bhikkhave, bahutaraṃ yaṃ tesaṃ vo mātumaraṇaṃ paccanubhontānaṃ amanāpasampayogā manāpavippayogā kandantānaṃ rudantānaṃ assu passannaṃ, paggharitaṃ. Na tv eva catusu mahāsamuddesu udakaṃ.

Dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, pi pītumaraṇaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ. Etad eva bhikkhave, bahutaraṃ yaṃ tesaṃ vo pitumaraṇaṃ paccanubhontānaṃ amanāpasampayogā manāpavippayogā kandantānaṃ rudantānaṃ assu passannaṃ, paggharitaṃ. Na tveva catusu mahāsamuddesu udakaṃ.
Dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, bhātumaraṇaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ.

Etadeva bhikkhave, bahutaraṃ yaṃ tesaṃ vo bhātumaraṇaṃ paccanubhontānaṃ amanāpasampayogā manāpavippayogā kandantānaṃ rudantānaṃ assu passannaṃ, paggharitaṃ. Na tv eva catusu mahāsamuddesu udakaṃ.

Dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, bhaginimaraṇaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ. Etad eva bhikkhave, bahutaraṃ yaṃ tesaṃ vo bhaginimaraṇaṃ paccanubhontānaṃ amanāpasampayogā manāpavippayogā kandantānaṃ rudantānaṃ assu passannaṃ, paggharitaṃ. Na tv eva catusu mahāsamuddesu udakaṃ.

Dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, puttamaraṇaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ. Etad eva bhikkhave, bahutaraṃ yaṃ tesaṃ vo puttamaraṇaṃ paccanubhontānaṃ amanāpasampayogā manāpavippayogā kandantānaṃ rudantānaṃ assu passannaṃ, paggharitaṃ. Na tv eva catusu mahāsamuddesu udakaṃ.

Dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, dhītumaraṇaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ. Etad eva bhikkhave, bahutaraṃ yaṃ tesaṃ vo dhītumaraṇaṃ paccanubhontānaṃ amanāpasampayogā manāpavippayogā kandantānaṃ rudantānaṃ assu passannaṃ, paggharitaṃ. Na tv eva catusu mahāsamuddesu udakaṃ.

Dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, ñātivyasanaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ. Etad eva bhikkhave, bahutaraṃ yaṃ tesaṃ vo ñātimaraṇaṃ paccanubhontānaṃ amanāpasampayogā manāpavippayogā kandantānaṃ rudantānaṃ assu passannaṃ, paggharitaṃ. Na tv eva catusu mahāsamuddesu udakaṃ.

Dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, ñātivyasanaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ. Etad eva bhikkhave, bahutaraṃ yaṃ tesaṃ vo ñātivyasanaṃ paccanubhontānaṃ amanāpasampayogā manāpavippayogā kandantānaṃ rudantānaṃ assu passannaṃ, paggharitaṃ. Na tv eva catusu mahāsamuddesu udakaṃ.

Dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, bhogavyasanaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ. Etad eva bhikkhave, bahutaraṃ yaṃ tesaṃ vo bhogavyasanaṃ paccanubhontānaṃ amanāpasampayogā manāpavippayogā kandantānaṃ rudantānaṃ assu passannaṃ, paggharitaṃ. Na tve va catusu mahāsamuddesu udakaṃ.

Dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, rogavyasanaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ. Etad eva bhikkhave, bahutaraṃ yaṃ tesaṃ vo rogavyasanaṃ paccanubhontānaṃ amanāpasampayogā manāpavippayogā kandantānaṃ rudantānaṃ assu passannaṃ, paggharitaṃ. Na tv eva catusu mahāsamuddesu udakaṃ.

Taṃ kissa hetu? Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Yāvañ cidaṃ bhikkhave, alam eva sabbasaṅkhāresu nibbindituṃ, alaṃ virajjituṃ, alaṃ vimuccitun ti.

Samyutta Nikaya XV.3: Assu Sutta = Tears / Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. -- For free distribution only. -- URL: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/samyutta/sn15-003.html. -- Zugriff am 2001-06-21

At Savatthi. There the Blessed One said: "From an inconstruable beginning comes transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on. What do you think, monks: Which is greater, the tears you have shed while transmigrating & wandering this long, long time -- crying & weeping from being joined with what is displeasing, being separated from what is pleasing -- or the water in the four great oceans?"

"As we understand the Dhamma taught to us by the Blessed One, this is the greater: the tears we have shed while transmigrating & wandering this long, long time -- crying & weeping from being joined with what is displeasing, being separated from what is pleasing -- not the water in the four great oceans."

"Excellent, monks. Excellent. It is excellent that you thus understand the Dhamma taught by me.

"This is the greater: the tears you have shed while transmigrating & wandering this long, long time -- crying & weeping from being joined with what is displeasing, being separated from what is pleasing -- not the water in the four great oceans.

"Long have you (repeatedly) experienced the death of a mother. The tears you have shed over the death of a mother while transmigrating & wandering this long, long time -- crying & weeping from being joined with what is displeasing, being separated from what is pleasing -- are greater than the water in the four great oceans.

"Long have you (repeatedly) experienced the death of a father...the death of a brother...the death of a sister...the death of a son...the death of a daughter...loss with regard to relatives...loss with regard to wealth...loss with regard to disease. The tears you have shed over loss with regard to disease while transmigrating & wandering this long, long time -- crying & weeping from being joined with what is displeasing, being separated from what is pleasing -- are greater than the water in the four great oceans.

"Why is that? From an inconstruable beginning comes transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on. Long have you thus experienced stress, experienced pain, experienced loss, swelling the cemeteries -- enough to become disenchanted with all fabricated things, enough to become dispassionate, enough to be released."

Daṇḍasuttaṃ

272. Sāvatthiyaṃ-

Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbākoṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Seyyathā pi bhikkhave, daṇḍo upari vehāsaṃ khitto sakimpi mūlena nipatati, sakimpi majjhena nipatati, sakimpi aggena nipatati, evam eva kho bhikkhave, avijjānīvaraṇā  sattā taṇhāsaṃyojanā sandhāvantā saṃsarantā sakimpi asmā lokā paraṃ lokaṃ gacchanti. Sakimpi parasmā lokā imaṃ lokaṃ āgacchanti.

Taṃ kissa hetu? Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Yāvañ cidaṃ bhikkhave, alam eva sabbasaṅkhāresu nibbindituṃ, alaṃ virajjituṃ, alaṃ vimuccitun ti.

 

Samyutta Nikaya XV.9: Daṇḍa Sutta = The Stick / Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. --
For free distribution only. -- URL: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/samyutta/sn15-009.html. -- Zugriff am 2001-06-21

At Savatthi. There the Blessed One said: "From an inconstruable beginning comes transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on. Just as a stick thrown up in the air lands sometimes on its base, sometimes on its side, sometimes on its tip; in the same way, beings hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving, transmigrating & wandering on, sometimes go from this world to another world, sometimes come from another world to this.

"Why is that? From an inconstruable beginning comes transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on. Long have you thus experienced stress, experienced pain, experienced loss, swelling the cemeteries -- enough to become disenchanted with all fabricated things, enough to become dispassionate, enough to be released."

Duggatasuttaṃ

274. Ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā sāvatthiyaṃ viharati jetavane anāthapiṇḍikassa ārāme. Tatra kho bhagavā bhikkhū āmantesi 'bhikkhavo ti. 'Bhadante' ti te bhikkhū bhagavato paccassosuṃ. Bhagavā etadavoca:

Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Yaṃ bhikkhave, passeyyātha duggataṃ durupetaṃ, niṭṭham ettha gantabbaṃ: 'amhehi pi evarūpaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ iminā dīghena addhunā ti'.

Taṃ kissa hetu? Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Yāvañ cidaṃ bhikkhave, alam eva sabbasaṅkhāresu nibbindituṃ, alaṃ virajjituṃ, alaṃ vimuccitun ti.

 

Samyutta Nikaya XV.11: Duggata Sutta = Fallen on Hard Times / Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. -- For free distribution only. -- URL: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/samyutta/sn15-011.html. -- Zugriff am 2001-06-21

At Savatthi. There the Blessed One said: "From an inconstruable beginning comes transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on. When you see someone who has fallen on hard times, overwhelmed with hard times, you should conclude: 'We, too, have experienced just this sort of thing in the course of that long, long time.'

"Why is that? From an inconstruable beginning comes transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on. Long have you thus experienced stress, experienced pain, experienced loss, swelling the cemeteries -- enough to become disenchanted with all fabricated things, enough to become dispassionate, enough to be released."

Sukhitasuttaṃ

275. Sāvatthiyaṃ-
Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Yaṃ bhikkhave, passeyyātha sukhitaṃ sajjitaṃ, [PTS Page 187] niṭṭhamettha gantabbaṃ ''amhehi pi evarūpaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ iminā dīghena addhunā'' ti.

Taṃ kissa hetu? Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Yāvañ cidaṃ bhikkhave, alam eva sabbasaṅkhāresu nibibindituṃ, alaṃ virajjituṃ, alaṃ vimuccitun ti.

 

Samyutta Nikaya XV.12: Sukhita Sutta = Happy / Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. -- 
For free distribution only. -- URL: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/samyutta/sn15-012.html. -- Zugriff am 2001-06-21

At Savatthi. There the Blessed One said: "From an inconstruable beginning comes transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on. When you see someone who is happy & well-provided in life, you should conclude: 'We, too, have experienced just this sort of thing in the course of that long, long time.'

"Why is that? From an inconstruable beginning comes transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on. Long have you thus experienced stress, experienced pain, experienced loss, swelling the cemeteries -- enough to become disenchanted with all fabricated things, enough to become dispassionate, enough to be released."

Mātusuttaṃ

277. Sāvatthiyaṃ -
Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojānānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Na so bhikkhave, satto sulabharūpo yo na mātābhūtapubbo iminā dīghena addhunā.

Taṃ kissa hetu? Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Evaṃ dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, dukkhaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, tibbaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, vyasanaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, kaṭasi vaḍḍhitā. Yāvañ cidaṃ bhikkhave, alam eva sabbasaṅkhāresu nibbindituṃ, alaṃ virajjituṃ, alaṃ vimuccitunti.

Pitusuttaṃ

278. Sāvatthiyaṃ -
Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojānānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Na so bhikkhave, satto sulabharūpo yo na pitābhūtapubbo iminā dīghena addhunā.

Taṃ kissa hetu? Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Evaṃ dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, dukkhaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, tibbaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, vyasanaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, kaṭasi vaḍḍhitā. Yāvañ cidaṃ bhikkhave, alam eva sabbasaṅkhāresu nibbindituṃ, alaṃ virajjituṃ, alaṃ vimuccitun ti.

Bhātusuttaṃ

279. Sāvatthiyaṃ -
Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojānānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Na so bhikkhave, satto sulabharūpo yo na bhātābhūtapubbo iminā dīghena addhunā.

Taṃ kissa hetu? Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Evaṃ dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, dukkhaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, tibbaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, vyasanaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, kaṭasi vaḍḍhitā. Yāvañ cidaṃ bhikkhave, alameva sabbasaṅkhāresu nibbindituṃ, alaṃ virajjituṃ, alaṃ vimuccitun ti.

Bhaginisuttaṃ

280. Sāvatthiyaṃ -
Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojānānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Na so bhikkhave, satto sulabharūpo yo na bhaginibhūtapubbo iminā dīghena addhunā.

Taṃ kissa hetu? Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Evaṃ dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, dukkhaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, tibbaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, vyasanaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, kaṭasi vaḍḍhitā. Yāvañ cidaṃ bhikkhave, alameva sabbasaṅkhāresu nibbindituṃ, alaṃ virajjituṃ, alaṃ vimuccitun ti.

Puttasuttaṃ

281. 190 Sāvatthiyaṃ -
Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojānānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Na so bhikkhave, satto sulabharūpo yo na puttabhūtapubbo iminā dīghena addhunā.

Taṃ kissa hetu? Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Evaṃ dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, dukkhaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, tibbaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, vyasanaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, kaṭasi vaḍḍhitā. Yāvañ cidaṃ bhikkhave, alameva sabbasaṅkhāresu nibbindituṃ, alaṃ virajjituṃ, alaṃ vimuccitun ti.

Dhītusuttaṃ

282. Sāvatthiyaṃ -
Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbā koṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojānānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Na so bhikkhave, satto sulabharūpo yo na dhītābhūtapubbo iminā dīghena addhunā.

Taṃ kissa hetu? Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave, saṃsāro. Pubbākoṭi na paññāyati avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ sandhāvataṃ saṃsarataṃ. Evaṃ dīgharattaṃ vo bhikkhave, dukkhaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, tibbaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, vyasanaṃ paccanubhūtaṃ, kaṭasi vaḍḍhitā. Yāvañ cidaṃ bhikkhave, alameva sabbasaṅkhāresu nibbindituṃ, alaṃ virajjituṃ, alaṃ vimuccitun ti.

Samyutta Nikaya XV.14-19: Māta Sutta [usw.] = Mother / Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu.  -- 
For free distribution only. -- URL: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/samyutta/sn15-014.html

At Savatthi. There the Blessed One said: "From an inconstruable beginning comes transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on. A being who has not been your mother at one time in the past is not easy to find...A being who has not been your father...your brother...your sister...your son...your daughter at one time in the past is not easy to find.

"Why is that? From an inconstruable beginning comes transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on. Long have you thus experienced stress, experienced pain, experienced loss, swelling the cemeteries -- enough to become disenchanted with all fabricated things, enough to become dispassionate, enough to be released."

32. Saṭṭhinarasahassānaṃ,
dhammābhisamayo ahu;
sattatiṃsasahassamattā,
pabbajiṃsu tadantike.

32. Sechzigtausend Leute erfassten die Lehre voll, siebenunddreißigtausend wurden bei ihm Novizen.

33. Vihārānaṃ pañcasataṃ,
tasmiṃ dese patiṭṭhahi;
patiṭṭhāpesi tatthevaṃ,
thero so jinasāsanaṃ.

33. Er gründete in diesem Land fünfhundert Klöster. So gründete der Thera dort die Religion des Eroberers.


5. Dhammarakkhita's Mission in Aparantaka



Abb.: Vermutete Lage von Aparantaka (©MS Encarta)

34. Gantvāparantakaṃ thero,
Yonako Dhammarakkhito;
aggikkhandhopamaṃ suttaṃ,
kathetvā janamajjhago.

34. Als der Thera Dhammarakkhita1, der Yona2, nach Aparantaka3 gekommen war, verkündete er inmitten der Leute die Lehrrede vom Feuerflammengleichnis4.

Kommentar:

1 Dhammarakkhita

"Yonaka Dhammarakkhita Thera.

He was sent to Aparantaka at the conclusion of Moggaliputtapissa's Council (Mhv.xii.4).' There he preached the Aggikkhandhopama Sutta and converted thirty seven thousand beings. Mhv.xii.34f.; Dpv.viii.7; Sp.i.67."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

2 Yona: siehe unten zu Vers 39

3 Aparantaka vermutlich heutiges Gujarāt (ગુજરાત)

"Aparantaka (Aparanta)

One of the countries to which Asoka sent missionaries after the Third Council. The leader of the mission was Yonaka Dhammarakkhitta (Mhv.xii.5; Dpv.viii.7). He preached to the people the Aggikkhandopamā Sutta and 37,000 people embraced the new faith, a thousand men and even more women entering the Order (Mhv.xii.34-6; Sp.i.67).

The country comprises the territory of Northern Gujarat, Kāthiāwar, Kachch and Sindh. Fleet J.R.A.S. 1910, p.427; Bhandarkar in his Early History of Dekkan puts it in North Konkan (p.23); see also Burgess: Arch. Reports ii.131.

According to Hsouien Thsang, the country seems to comprise Sindh, Western Rājaputāna, Cutch, Gujarat and a portion of the adjoining coast on the lower bank of the Narmadā. Cunningham Anct. Geog. of India, notes, p.690; and Law: Early Geography 56ff.

Probably Buddhism was known in Aparanta during the time of the Buddha himself. Dutt: Early Hist. of Bsm. p.190; Dvy., pp.45ff; but the reference is to Sunāparanta.

It is said that when Mandhātā brought all the four continents under his sway people from the three other continents came over to Jambudīpa and lived there. When the king died they found themselves unable to get back, and begged his minister to allow them to start settlements in Jambudīpa itself. He agreed, and the settlement of those who had come from Aparagoyāna was for that reason called Aparanta (DA.ii.482; MA.i.184) (Aparantaka)."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

"Gujarat (Gujarati: ગુજરાત, Hindi: गुजरात, Gujarāt, IPA [guɟra:t]; also spelled Gujrat and sometimes Gujarath). Guzarat is a Western phonetic corruption, and is not considered an official term. Gujarat contains many of the former Princely states of India, and is the second-most industrialized state in the Republic of India after Maharashtra. Gujarat borders Pakistan, and the states of Rajasthan to the north-east, Madhya Pradesh to the east, Maharashtra and the Union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli to the south. The international border with Pakistan is to the north-west. The Arabian Sea makes up the state's western coast. Its capital is Gandhinagar, a planned city which is close to Ahmedabad [અમદાવાદ], the former state capital and the current commercial center of Gujarat.

History

Gujarat Civilization begins as the Indus Valley Civilization

Situated on the western coast of India, the name of the state is derived from Gujjarātta (Gurjar Rāshtra), which means the land of the Gujjars or Khazars. It is believed that a tribe of Gujjars migrated to India around the 5th century. The history of Gujarat, however, began much earlier. Settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, have been found in the area now known as Gujarat. Gujarat's coastal cities, chiefly Bharuch, served as ports and trading centres for the Maurya and Gupta empires. After the collapse of the Gupta empire in the 6th century, Gujarat flourished as an independent Hindu kingdom. The Maitraka dynasty, descended from a Gupta general, ruled from the 6th to the 8th centuries from their capital at Vallabhi, although they were ruled briefly by Harsha during the 7th century. The Arab rulers of Sind sacked Vallabhi in 770, bringing the Maitraka dynasty to an end. A branch of the Pratihara clan ruled Gujarat after the eighth century. In 775 the first Parsi (Zoroastrian) refugees arrived in Gujarat from Iran.

960 AD to 1292 AD

The Solanki clan of Rajputs ruled Gujarat from c. 960 to 1243. Gujarat was a major center of Indian Ocean trade, and their capital at Anhilwara (Patan) was one of the largest cities in India, with a population estimated at 100,000 in the year 1000. In 1026, the famous Somnath temple in Gujarat was destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni [محمود غزنوی]. After 1243, the Solkanis lost control of Gujarat to their feudatories, of whom the Vaghela chiefs of Dholka came to dominate Gujarat. In 1292 the Vaghelas became tributaries of the Yadava dynasty of Devagiri in the Deccan.

1297 AD to ~1850 AD

In 1297 to 1298 Ala ud din Khilji [علاء الدین خلجی], Sultan of Delhi, destroyed Anhilwara and incorporated Gujarat into the Delhi Sultanate. After Timur's [تیمور] sacking of Delhi at the end of the 14th century weakened the Sultanate, Gujarat's Muslim governor Zafar Khan Muzaffar asserted his independence, and his son, Sultan Ahmed Shah (ruled 1411 to 1442), established Ahmedabad as the capital. Cambay eclipsed Bharuch as Gujarat's most important trade port. The Sultanate of Gujarat remained independent until 1576, when the Mughal emperor Akbar [جلال الدین محمد اکب] conquered it and annexed it to the Mughal Empire. It remained a province of the Mughal empire until the Marathas conquered eastern and central Gujarat in the 18th century; Western Gujarat (Kathiawar and Kutch) were divided among numerous local rulers.

1614 to 1947

Portugal was the first European power to arrive in Gujarat, acquiring several enclaves along the Gujarati coast, including Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The British East India Company established a factory in Surat [સુરત] in 1614, which formed their first base in India, but it was eclipsed by Bombay [मुंबई] after the British acquired it from Portugal in 1668. The Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Many local rulers, notably the Maratha Gaekwads of Baroda (Vadodara), made a separate peace with the British, and acknowledged British sovereignty in return for retaining local self-rule. Gujarat was placed under the political authority of Bombay Presidency, with the exception of Baroda state, which had a direct relationship with the Governor-General of India. From 1818 to 1947, most of present-day Gujarat, including Kathiawar, Kutch, and northern and eastern Gujarat were divided into dozens of princely states, but several districts in central and southern Gujarat, namely Ahmedabad, Broach (Bharuch), Kaira, Panch Mahals, and Surat, were ruled directly by British officials.

Indian Independence Movement

The people of Gujarat were the most enthusiastic participants in India's struggle for freedom. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi [મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી], Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel [સરદાર વલ્લભભાઈ પટેલ], Morarji Desai [मोरारजी देसाई], K.M. Munshi, Narhari Parikh, Mahadev Desai, Mohanlal Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas all hailed from Gujarat. In addition, Mohammed Ali Jinnah [محمد على جناح], Pakistan's first Governor-General, spoke Gujarati as his mother tongue and his father was from what later became Gujarat. Gujarat was also the site of some of the most popular revolts, including the Satyagrahas in Kheda, Bardoli, Borsad and the Salt Satyagraha.

Province Consolidation and Division after 1947

After India's independence in 1947, 217 princely states of Kathiawar and Saurashtra, including the former kingdom of Junagadh, were grouped together to form the province of Saurashtra, with its capitol at Rajkot. On November 1, 1956, Saurashtra was merged into Bombay State. The modern state of Gujarat was created on May 1, 1960, out of the northern, predominantly Gujarati-speaking portion of Bombay State. The southern, predominantly Marathi-speaking portion became the state of Maharashtra [महाराष्ट्र].

Post Independence

After Indian independence and the partition of India in 1947, the new Indian government grouped the former princely states of Gujarat into three larger units; Saurashtra, which included the former princely states on the Kathiawar peninsula, Kutch, and Bombay state, which included the former British districts of Bombay Presidency together with most of Baroda state and the other former princely states of eastern Gujarat. In 1956, Bombay state was enlarged to include Kutch, Saurashtra, and parts of Hyderabad state and Madhya Pradesh in central India. The new state had a mostly Gujarati-speaking north and a Marathi-speaking south. Agitation by Marathi nationalists for their own state led to the split of Bombay state on linguistic lines; on 1 May 1960, it became the new states of Gujarat and Maharashtra. The first capital of Gujarat was Ahmedabad; the capital was moved to Gandhinagar in 1970.

In Gujarat a few new towns have been established since Indian independence in 1947. Most of these are more like settlements established near existing urban centres. Gandhidham, Sardarnagar and Kubernagar are three rehabilitation towns more like refugee settlements than self-sufficient towns. The last two now form part of the city of Ahmedabad. Ankleswar and Mithapur were two of the earlier industrial towns established in Gujarat. A complex of three small townships for the oil refinery, the Fertilizer Factory and Petro-chemicals plant also came up near Vadodara. Kandla is the only new port town established in the state.

2001 Gujarat Earthquake

Gujarat was hit with a devastating earthquake on January 26, 2001 at 9:00, which claimed a staggering 20,000 lives, injured another 200,000 people and severely affected the lives of 40 million of the population. The economic and financial loss to Gujarat and India is being felt even after almost half a decade.

2002 Gujarat Riots

The term 2002 Gujarat violence refers to the riots which were triggered on February 27, 2002 by a vicious attack on a passenger train, the Sabarmati Express, passing through the town of Godhra. The train was forcibly stopped and attacked at Signal Falia near Godhra Junction. Ladies Coach S6 bore the brunt of mob attack. In the midst of attack, Coach S6 caught fire killing 59 passangers, most of whom were women and children.

Many train passengers were Hindu activists and pilgrims called Kar Sevaks returning from a disputed religious site located in holy city of Ayodhya. The train was allegedly set to fire by Muslim extremists. Hindu sympathisers often cite this as the primary provocation or the "first use" of violence. However, Muslim sympathisers allege that hindus riding the train were shouting hindu-religious slogans. As a result, Muslims attacked the train.

Two years after the incident Railway Minister Lalu Prasad Yadav appointed Justice Banerjee to investigate the cause of fire. On the eve of election in Railway Minister's Native State Bihar, Justice Banerjee submitted an interim report concluding that the fire and attack are two separate events. It claimed, very controversially, that the fire was likely started from within the train, and not by a mob gathered outside the train This interim report and Bin Laden Clones were used in Bihar Election to attract Muslim votes.  The Interim Report's credibilty is in serious doubt due to timing of it's release and subsequent use in election campaigning

Geography


Geography of Gujarat. Courtesy: NASA Earth Observatory

Gujarat is the westernmost state of India. It is bounded by the Arabian Sea to the west and southwest, and Pakistan to the north. The state of Rajasthan is to the northeast, Madhya Pradesh to the east, and Maharashtra and the union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli to the south and southeast of Gujarat.

Climate & Natural Features

The relief is low in the most parts of the state and involves diverse climate conditions. Though mostly dry, it is desertic in the north-west, and wet in the southern districts due to heavy monsoon season. With the construction of Sardar Sarovar on Narmada River, a result of the largest dam in India, irrigation facilities have improved immensely, with water being provided to the most dry areas of Kutch and Saurashtra through a 550 km long canal, an engineering marvel. With the Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Cambay, Gujarat has about 1600 km of coastline, which is the longest coastline of all Indian states.

Rivers

The major rivers flowing through the state include the Narmada, Sabarmati, and Mahi in central and northern Gujarat; Mithi, Khari, and Bhogavo in Saurashtra; Tapi, Purna, Ambika, Auranga and Damanganga in the southern part of the state.

National Parks

Gujarat is home to four National Parks, including Gir Forest National Park, near Junagadh, Blackbuck National Park in Bhavnagar District, Vansda National Park in Navsari District, and Marine National Park on the Gulf of Kutch in Jamnagar District. The last remaining Asian lions, famous for their dark black manes, live in the area surrounding Girnar. In addition to these, there are twenty one Wildlife sanctuaries.

Major Cities

The major cities in Gujarat are Ahmedabad [અમદાવાદ], Vadodara (Baroda), Surat [સુરત], Rajkot and Jamnagar. Ahmedabad, the commercial capital of the state, is the sixth largest city of India. Other important cities include Nadiad, Anand and Ankleshwar in central Gujarat, Bharuch, Navsari, Vapi, and Valsad in the south; and Bhuj, and Dwarka in Saurastra in the west."

[Quelle:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarat. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-08]

4 Lehrrede Feuerflammengleichnis (Aggikhandopamā-Sutta): Anguttaranikāya IV, 128f.

( Aggikkhandhopamasuttaṃ)
19. Ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā kosalesu cārikaṃ carati mahatā bhikkhusaṅghena saddhiṃ. Addasā kho bhagavā addhānamaggapaṭipanno aññatarasmiṃ padese mahantaṃ aggikkhandhaṃ ādittaṃ sampajjalitaṃ sajotibhūtaṃ. Disvāna maggā okkamma aññatarasmiṃ rukkhamūle paññattāsane nisīdi. Nisajja kho bhagavā bhikkhū āmantesi: passatha no tumhe bhikkhave amuṃ mahantaṃ aggikkhandhaṃ ādittaṃ sampajjalitaṃ sajotibhūtan ti. Evaṃ bhante.

Taṃ kiṃ maññatha bhikkhave, katamaṃ nu kho varaṃ yaṃ amuṃ mahantaṃ aggikkhandhaṃ ādittaṃ sampajjalitaṃ sajotibhūtaṃ āliṅgitvā upanisīdeyya vā upanipajjeyya vā yaṃ vā khattiyakaññaṃ vā brāhmaṇakaññaṃ vā  gahapati kaññaṃ vā mudutaluṇahatthapādiṃ āliṅgitvā upanisīdeyya vā upanipajjeyya vā ti.

Etad eva bhante, varaṃ yaṃ khattiyakaññaṃ vā brāhmaṇakaññaṃ vā gahapatikaññaṃ vā mudutaluṇahatthapādiṃ āliṅgitvā upanisīdeyya vā upanipajjeyya vā. Dukkhaṃ hetaṃ bhante, yaṃ amuṃ mahantaṃ aggikkhandhaṃ ādittaṃ sampajjalitaṃ sajotibhūtaṃ āliṅgitvā upanisīdeyya vā upanipajjeyya vā ti.

Ārocayāmi vo bhikkhave, paṭivedayāmi vo bhikkhave, yathā etad eva tassa varaṃ dussīlassa pāpadhammassa asucisaṃkassarasamācārassa paṭicchannakammantassa assamaṇassa samaṇapaṭiññassa abrahmacārissa brāhmacārī paṭiññassa anto pūtissa avassutassa kasambujātassa yaṃ amuṃ mahantaṃ aggikkhandhaṃ ādittaṃ sampajjalitaṃ sajotibhūtaṃ āliṅgitvā upanisīdeyya vā upanipajjeyya vā.

Taṃ kissa hetu: tato nidānaṃ hi so bhikkhave maraṇaṃ [PTS Page 129] vā nigaccheyya, maraṇamattaṃ vā dukkhaṃ. Na tv eva tappaccayā kāyassa bhedā parammaraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjeyya. Yañ ca kho so bhikkhave, dussilo pāpadhammo asucisaṅkassarasamācāro paṭicchanna kammanto assamaṇo samaṇapaṭiñño abrahmacārī brāhmacārī paṭiññassa antopūti avassuko kasambujāto khattiyakaññaṃ vā brāhmaṇakaññaṃ vā gahapatikaññaṃ vā mudutaluṇahatthapādiṃ āliṅgitvā upanisīdati vā upanipajjati vā taṃ hi tassa bhikkhave hoti dīgharattaṃ ahitāya dukkhāya. Kāyassa bhedā param maraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjati.

Taṃ kiṃ maññatha bhikkhave, katamaṃ nu kho varaṃ yaṃ balavā puriso daḷhāya vālarajjūyā ubho jaṅghā veṭhetvā ghaṃseyya, sā chaviṃ jindeyya, chaviṃ chetvā cammaṃ chindeyya, cammaṃ chetvā maṃsaṃ chindeyya, maṃsaṃ chetvā nahāruṃ chindeyya, nahāruṃ chetvā aṭṭhiṃ chindeyya, aṭṭhiṃ chetvā aṭṭhimiñjaṃ āhacca tiṭṭheyya, yaṃ vā khattiyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇa mahā sālānaṃ vā gahapati mahāsālānaṃ vā abhivādanaṃ sādiyeyyāti.

Etad eva bhante, varaṃ yaṃ khattiyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ vā gahapatimahāsālānaṃ vā abhivādanaṃ sādiyeyya. Dukkhaṃ hetaṃ bhante, yaṃ balavā puriso daḷhāya vālarajjuyā, uho chaṅghā veṭhetvā ghaṃseyya, sā chaviṃ chindeyya, chaviṃ chetvā cammaṃ chindeyya, cammaṃ chetvā maṃsaṃ chindeyya, maṃsaṃ chetvā nahāruṃ chindeyya nahāruṃ chetvā aṭṭhiṃ chindeyya, aṭṭhiṃ chetvā aṭṭhimiñjaṃ āhacca tiṭṭheyyā ti.

Ārocayāmi vo bhikkhave, paṭivedayāmi vo bhikkhave, yathā etad eva tassa varaṃ, dussīlassa pāpadhammassa asucisaṃkassarasamācārassa paṭicchannakammantassa assamaṇassa samaṇapaṭiññassa abrahmacārissa brāhmacārī paṭiññassa antopūtissa avassutassa kasambujātassa yaṃ balavā puriso daḷhāya vālarajjuyā ubho chaṅghā veṭhetvā ghaṃseyya, sā chaviṃ chindeyya, chaviṃ chetvā cammaṃ chindeyya, cammaṃ chetvā maṃsaṃ chindeyya, maṃsaṃ chetvā nahāruṃ chindeyya, nahāruṃ chetvā aṭṭhiṃ chindeyya, aṭṭhiṃ chetvā aṭṭhimiñjaṃ āhacca tiṭṭheyya. Taṃ kissa hetu: tato nidānaṃ hi so bhikkhave, maraṇaṃ vā nigaccheyya maraṇamattaṃ vā dukkhaṃ. Na tv eva tappaccayā kāyassa bhedā param maraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjeyya. [PTS Page 130] yañ ca kho so bhikkhave, dussīlo pāpadhammo asucisaṃkassarasamācāro paṭicchannakammanto assamaṇo samaṇapaṭiñño abrahmacārī brāhmacārī paṭiñño antopūti avassuto kasambujāto khattiyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ vā gahapatimahāsālānaṃ vā abhivādanaṃ sādiyati. Taṃ hi tassa bhikkhave, hoti dīgharattaṃ ahitāya dukkhāya. Kāyassa bhedā parammaraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjati.

Taṃ kiṃ maññatha bhikkhave, kataman nu kho varaṃ yaṃ balavā puriso tiṇhāya sattiyā teladhotāya paccorasmiṃ pahareyya, yaṃ vā khattiyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ vā gahapatimahāsālānaṃ vā añjalikammaṃ sādiyeyyā ti.

Etad eva bhante varaṃ yaṃ khattiyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ vā gahapatimahāsālānaṃ vā añjalikammaṃ sādiyeyya. Dukkhaṃ hetaṃ bhante, yaṃ balavā puriso tiṇhāya sattiyā teladhotāya paccorasmiṃ pahareyyā ti.

Ārocayāmi vo bhikkhave, paṭivedayāmi vo bhikkhave, yathā etad eva tassa varaṃ dussīlassa pāpadhammassa asucisaṃkassarasamācārassa paṭicchannakammantassa assamaṇassa samaṇapaṭiññassa abrahmacārissa brāhmacārī paṭiññassa antopūtissa avassutassa kasambujātassa yaṃ balavā puriso tiṇhāya sattiyā teladhotāya paccorasmiṃ pahareyya. Taṃ kissa hetu, tatonidānaṃ hi so bhikkhave, maraṇaṃ vā nigaccheyya, maraṇamattaṃ vā dukkhaṃ. Natveva tappaccayā kāyassa bhedā parammaraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjeyya. Yaṃ ca kho so bhikkhave, dussīlo pāpadhammo asucisaṃkassarasamācāro paṭicchannakammanto assamaṇo samaṇapaṭiñño abrahmacārī brāhmacārī paṭiñño antopūti avassuto kasambujāto khattiyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ vā gahapati mahāsālanaṃ vā añjalikammaṃ sādiyati, taṃ hi tassa bhikkhave, hoti dīgharattaṃ ahitāya dukkhāya, kāyassa bhedā parammaraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjati.

Taṃ kiṃ maññatha bhikkhave, katamaṃ nū kho varaṃ yaṃ balavā puriso tattena ayopaṭṭena ādittena [PTS Page 131] sampajjalitena sajotibhūtena kāyaṃ sampaliveṭheyya, yaṃ vā khattiyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ vā gahapatimahāsālānaṃ vā saddhādeyyaṃ cīvaraṃ paribhūñjeyyā ti.

Etad eva bhante, varaṃ yaṃ khattiyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ vā gahapatimahāsālānaṃ vā saddhādeyyaṃ cīvaraṃ paribhūñjeyya, dukkhaṃ hetaṃ bhante, yaṃ balavā puriso tattena ayopaṭṭena ādittena sampajjalite na sajotibhūtena kāyaṃ sampaliveṭheyyā ti.

Ārocayāmi vo bhikkhave, paṭivedayāmi vo bhikkhave, yathā eta deva tass avaraṃ dussīlassa pāpadhammassa asucisaṃkassarasamācārassa paṭicchannakammantassa assamaṇassa samaṇapaṭiññassa abrahmacārissa brāhmacārī paṭiññassa antopūtissa avassutassa kasambujātassa yaṃ balavā puriso tattena ayopaṭṭena ādittena sampajjalitena sajotibhūtena kāyaṃ sampaliveṭheyya. Taṃ kissa hetu: tato nidānaṃ hi so bhikkhave, maraṇaṃ vā nigaccheyya maraṇamattaṃ vā dukkhaṃ. Natveva tappaccayā kāyassa bhedā parammaraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjeyya. Yaṃ ca kho so bhikkhave, dussīlo pāpadhammo asucisaṃkassarasamācāro paṭicchannakammanto assamaṇo samaṇapaṭiñño abrahmacārī brāhmacārī paṭiñño antopūtī avassuto kasambujāto yaṃ khattiyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ vā gahapatimahāsālānaṃ vā saddhādeyya cīvaraṃ paribhuñjati. Taṃ hi tassa bhikkhave, dīgharattaṃ ahitāya hoti dukkhāya. Kāyassa bhedā parammaraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjati.

Taṃ kiṃ maññatha bhikkhave, kataman nu kho varaṃ: yaṃ balavā puriso tattena ayosaṅkunā ādittena sampajjalitena sajotibhūtena mukhaṃ vivaritvā tattaṃ lohagulaṃ ādittaṃ sampajjalitaṃ sajotibhūtaṃ mukhe pakkhipeyya, taṃ tassa oṭṭham pi daheyya, mukham pi daheyya, jivham pi daheyya, kaṇṭham pi daheyya, uram pi [PTS Page 132]  daheyya, antam pi antaguṇam pi ādāya adhobhāgā nikkhameyya, yaṃ vā khattiyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇa mahāsālānaṃ vā gahapatimahāsalānaṃ vā saddhādeyyaṃ piṇḍapātaṃ paribhūñjeyyā ti.

Etad eva bhante, varaṃ yaṃ khattiyamahā sālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇa mahāsālānaṃ vā gahapati mahāsālānaṃ vā saddhādeyyaṃ piṇḍapātaṃ paribhuñjeyya. Dukkhaṃ hetaṃ bhante, yaṃ balavā puriso tattena ayosaṅkunā ādittena sampajjalitena sajotibhūtena mukhaṃ vivaritvā tattaṃ lohagulaṃ ādittaṃ sampajjalitaṃ sajotibhūtaṃ mukhe pakkhipeyya, taṃ tassa oṭṭham pi daheyya, mukham pi daheyya, jivham pi daheyya kaṇṭham pi daheyya, uram pi daheyya, antam pi antaguṇam pi ādāya adhobhāgā nikkhameyyāti.

Ārocayāmi vo bhikkhave, paṭivedayāmi vo bhikkhave, yathā etad eva tassa varaṃ dussīlassa pāpadhammato asucisaṃkassarasamācāro paṭicchannakammanto assamaṇo samaṇapaṭiñño abrahmacārī brāhmacārī paṭiñño antopūti avassuto kasambujātassa yaṃ balavā puriso tattena ayosaṅkunā ādittena sampajjalitena sajotibhūtena mukhaṃ vivaritvā tattaṃ lobhagulaṃ ādittaṃ sampajjalitaṃ sajotibhūtaṃ mūkhe pakkhipeyya, taṃ tassa oṭṭham pi daheyya mukham pi daheyya, jivham pi daheyya, kaṇṭham pi daheyya, uram pi daheyya antam pi antaguṇaṃ ādāya adhobhāgā nikkhameyya. Taṃ kissa hetu: tato nidānaṃ hi so bhikkhave maraṇaṃ vā nigaccheyya maraṇamattaṃ vā dukkhaṃ. Na tv eva tappaccayā kāyassa bhedā param maraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjeyya. Yañ ca kho so bhikkhave, dussīlo pāpadhammassato asucisaṃkassamācāro paṭicchannakammanto assamaṇo samaṇapaṭiñño abrahmacārī brāhmacārī paṭiñño antopūti avassuto kasambujāto khattiyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ vā gahapatimahāsālānaṃ vā saddhādeyyaṃ piṇḍapātaṃ paribhuñjati, taṃ hi tassa bhikkhave, hoti dīgharattaṃ ahitāya dukkhāya. Kāyassa bhedā parammaraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjati.

Taṃ kiṃ maññatha bhikkhave, kataman nu kho varaṃ yaṃ balavā puriso sīse vā gahetvā khandhe vā [PTS Page 133]  gahetvā tattaṃ ayo mañcaṃ vā ayo pīṭhaṃ vā ādittaṃ sampajjalitaṃ sajotibhūtaṃ ahinisīdāpeyya vā ahinipajjāpeyya vā, yaṃ khattiyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ vā gahapatimahāsālānaṃ vā saddhādeyyaṃ mañcapīṭhaṃ paribhūñjeyyā ti.

Etad eva bhante, varaṃ yaṃ khattīyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ vā gahapatimahāsālānaṃ vā saddhādeyyaṃ mañcapīṭhaṃ paribhūñjeyya. Dukkhaṃ hetaṃ bhante, yaṃ balavā puriso sīse vā gahetvā khandhe vā gahetvā tattaṃ ayo mañcaṃ vā ayo pīṭhaṃ vā ādittaṃ sampajjalitaṃ sajotibhūtaṃ abhinisīdāpeyya vā ahinipajjeyya vā.

Ārocayāmi vo bhikkhave, paṭivedayāmi vo bhikkhave, yathā etad eva tassa varaṃ dussīlassa pāpadhammassa asucisaṃkassarasamācārassa paṭicchannakammantassa assamaṇassa samaṇapaṭiññassa abrahmacārissa brāhmacārī paṭiññassa antopūtissa avassutassa kasambujātassa yaṃ balavā puriso sīse vā gahetvā khandhe vā gahetvā tattaṃ ayo mañcaṃ vā ayo pīṭhaṃ vā ādittaṃ sampajjalitaṃ sajotibhūtaṃ abhinisīdāpeyya vā abhinipajjāpeyya vā yaṃ khattiyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ vā gahapatimahāsālānaṃ vā saddhādeyyaṃ mañcapīṭhaṃ paribhūñjeyyāti. Etadeva bhante, varaṃ yaṃ khattiyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ vā gahapatimahā sālānaṃ vā saddhādeyyaṃ mañcapīṭhaṃ paribhuñjeyya. Dukkhaṃ hetaṃ bhante, yaṃ balavā puriso sīsevā gahetvā khandhe vā gahetvā tattaṃ ayo mañcaṃ vā ayo pīṭhaṃ vā ādittaṃ sampajjalitaṃ sajotibhūtaṃ abhinisīdāpeyya vā abhinipajjeyya vā taṃ kissa hetu: tato nidānaṃ hi so bhikkhave, maraṇaṃ vā nigaccheyya maraṇamattaṃ vā dukkhaṃ. Na tv eva tappaccayā kāyassa bhedā parammaraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjeyya. Yañ ca kho so bhikkhave dussīlo pāpadhammo asucisaṃkassarasamācāro paṭicchannakammanto assamaṇo samaṇapaṭiñño abrahmacārī brāhmacārī paṭiñño antopūti avassuto kasambujāto khattīya mahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ va gahapatimahāsālānaṃvā saddhādeyyaṃ mañcapīṭhaṃ paribhūñjati, taṃ hi tassa bhikkhave, hoti dīgharattaṃ ahitāya dukkāya. Kāyassa bhedā parammaraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjati.

Taṃ kiṃ maññatha bhikkhave, katamaṃ nu kho varaṃ yaṃ balavā puriso uddhapādaṃ adhosiraṃ gahetvā tattāya lohakumbhiyā pakkhipeyya ādittāya sampajjalitāya sajotibhūtāya, so tattha pheṇuddehakaṃ paccamāno sakimpi uddhaṃ gaccheyya sakimpi adho gaccheyya sakimpi tiriyaṃ gaccheyya. Yaṃ vā khattiyamahā sālānaṃ [PTS Page 134] vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ vā, gahapatimahāsālānaṃ vā saddhādeyyaṃ vihāraṃ paribhuñjeyyā ti.

Etad eva bhante, varaṃ yaṃ khattiyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ vā gahapatimahāsālānaṃ vā saddhādeyyaṃ vihāraṃ paribhuñjeyya. Dukkhaṃ hetaṃ bhante, yaṃ balavā puriso uddhapādaṃ adhosiraṃ gahetvā tattāya lohakumbhiyā pakkhipeyya ādittāya sampajjalitāya sajotibhūtāya, so tattha pheṇuddehakaṃ paccamāno sakimpi uddhaṃ gaccheyya, sakimpi adho gaccheyya, sakimpi tiriyaṃ gaccheyyā ti.

Ārocayāmi vo bhikkhave, paṭivedayāmi vo bhikkhave, yathā etad eva tass avaraṃ dussīlassa pāpadhammassa asucisaṃkassarasamācārassa paṭicchannakammantassa assamaṇassa samaṇapaṭiññassa abrahmacārissa brahmacārīpaṭiññassa antopūtissa avassutassa kasambujātassa yaṃ balavā puriso uddhapādaṃ adhosiraṃ gahetvā tattāya lohakumbhiyā pakkhipeyya ādittāya sampajjalitāya sajotibhūtāya, so tattha pheṇuddehakaṃ paccamāno sakimpi tiriyaṃ gaccheyya sakimpi adho gaccheyya, sakimpi tiriyaṃ gaccheyyāti taṃ kissa hetu: tato nidānaṃ hi so bhikkhave, maraṇaṃ vā nigaccheyya, maraṇamattaṃ vā dukkhaṃ. Na tv eva tappaccayā kāyassa bhedā parammaraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjati. Yañ ca kho so bhikkhave, dussīlo pāpadhammo asucisaṃkassarasamācāro paṭicchannakammanto assamaṇo samaṇapaṭiñño abrahmacārī brāhmacārī paṭiñño antopūti avassuto kasambujāto
Khattiyamahāsālānaṃ vā brāhmaṇamahāsālānaṃ vā gahapati mahāsālānaṃ vā saddhādeyyaṃ vihāraṃ paribhūñjati, taṃ hi tassa bhikkhave, hoti dīgharattaṃ ahitāya dukkhāya. Kāyassa bhedā parammaraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjati.

Tasmāt iha bhikkhave, evaṃ sikkhitabbaṃ: yesañ ca mayaṃ paribhuñjāma cīvarapiṇḍapātasenāsanagilānappaccayabhesajjaparikkhāraṃ tesaṃ te kārā mahapphalā bhavissanti, mahānisaṃsā. Amhākaṃ cevāyaṃ pabbajjā avañjhā bhavissati saphalā saudrayā ti evaṃ hi vo bhikkhave, sikkhitabbaṃ. Attatthaṃ vā bhikkhave, sampassamānena alam eva appamādena sampādetuṃ, paratthaṃ vā bhikkhave sampassamānena [PTS Page 135] alam eva appamādena sampādetuṃ. Ubhayatthaṃ vā bhikkhave sampassamānena alam eva appamādena sampādetun ti.

Idam avoca bhagavā. Imasmiñ ca pana veyyākaraṇasmiṃ bhaññamāne saṭṭimattānaṃ bhikkhūnaṃ uṇhaṃ lohitaṃ mukhato uggañji. Saṭṭhi mattā bhikkhū sikkhaṃ paccakkhāya hīnāyāvattīṃsu dukkaraṃ bhagavā, sudukkaraṃ bhagavāti. Saṭṭimattānaṃ bhikkhūnaṃ anupādāya āsavehi cittāni vimucciṃsū

ti.

"68 Das Los des falschen Asketen

So habe ich gehört. Einst wanderte der Erhabene mit einer großen Schar von Mönche durch das Land der Kosaler. Während aber der Erhabene auf der Straße einherzog, bemerkte er an einer gewissen Stelle ein großes flackerndes, loderndes, leuchtendes Feuer. Bei seinem Anblick bog er vom Wege ab und nahm am Fuß eines Baumes auf einem hergerichteten Sitze Platz. Darauf wandte er sich an die Mönche und sprach:

»Seht ihr wohl, ihr Mönche, jenes große flackernde, lodernde, leuchtende Feuer?« 

»Gewiss, o Herr.«

»Was haltet ihr da wohl für besser, ihr Mönche: dass man jenes große flackernde, lodernde, leuchtende Feuer umarmt, sich daneben hinsetzt, sich daneben legt, oder aber dass man eine mit weichen, zarten Händen und Füßen begabte Jungfrau aus dem Adels-, Brahmanen- oder Bürgerstande umarmt und sich neben sie hinsetzt oder sich neben sie legt?«

 »Besser ist es freilich, o Herr, dass man eine mit weichen, zarten Händen und Füßen begabte Jungfrau aus dem Adels-, Brahmanen- oder Bürgerstande umarmt und sich neben sie hinsetzt oder sich neben sie legt; denn Schmerzen bringt es, o Herr, wollte man jenes große flackernde, lodernde, leuchtende Feuer umarmen, sich daneben hinsetzen, sich daneben legen.«

»Ich sage euch, ihr Mönche, ich künde euch, ihr Mönche: besser wäre es wahrlich für den sittenlosen, dem Schlechten ergebenen Mönch von unlauterem und verdächtigem Benehmen, von versteckter Tat, für den Nichtasketen, der sich als Asketen ausgibt, für den Unkeuschen, der sich als keusch lebend ausgibt, der innerlich verdorben ist, befleckt, von schmutzigem Wesen, dass er jenes große flackernde, lodernde, leuchtende Feuer umarmt und sich daneben hinsetzt, daneben legt, als dass er eine mit weichen, zarten Händen und Füßen begabte Jungfrau aus dem Adels-, Brahmanen- oder Bürgerstande umarmt und sich neben sie hinsetzt oder neben sie legt. 

Und warum? Dadurch mag er zwar dem Tode oder tödlichem Schmerz verfallen; nicht aber gerät er darum beim Zerfall des Körpers, nach dem Tode, in niedere Welt, auf eine Leidensfährte, in die Daseinsabgründe, zur Hölle. Wenn aber ein solcher eine mit weichen, zarten Händen und Füßen begabte Jungfrau aus dem Adels-, Brahmanen- oder Bürgerstande umarmt und sich neben sie hinsetzt oder sich neben sie legt, so gereicht ihm das, ihr Mönche, lange Zeit zum Unheil und Leiden; und beim Zerfall des Körpers, nach dem Tode, gerät er in eine niedere Welt, auf eine Leidensfährte, in die Daseinsabgründe, zur Hölle.

Was haltet ihr wohl für besser, ihr Mönche: dass ein kräftiger Mann einem einen festen, härenen Strick um beide Beine schlingt und hin und her reibt, so dass der Strick erst die Oberhaut durchschürft, dann die Unterhaut, dann das Fleisch, dann die Sehnen, dann die Knochen durchschneidet und schließlich am Knochenmark anlangt oder dass man von mächtigen Adeligen, Brahmanen oder Bürgern ehrfurchtsvolle Begrüßung entgegennimmt?«

»Besser ist es freilich, o Herr, dass man von mächtigen Adeligen, Brahmanen oder Bürgern ehrfurchtsvolle Begrüßung entgegennimmt; denn Schmerzen bringt es, o Herr, wenn ein kräftiger Mann einem einen festen, härenen Strick um beide Beine schlingt und hin und her reibt.«

»Ich sage euch, ihr Mönche, ich künde euch, ihr Mönche: besser wäre es wahrlich für den sittenlosen, dem Schlechten ergebenen Mönch von unlauterem und verdächtigem Benehmen, von versteckter Tat, für den Nichtasketen, der sich als Asketen ausgibt, den Unkeuschen, der sich als keusch lebend ausgibt, der innerlich verdorben ist, befleckt, von schmutzigem Wesen, dass ihm ein kräftiger Mann einen starken, härenen Strick um beide Beine schlingt und hin und her reibt 

. . ., als dass er von mächtigen Adeligen, Brahmanen oder Bürgern ehrfurchtsvolle Begrüßung entgegennimmt .... 


». . . Ich sage euch, ihr Mönche, ich künde euch, ihr Mönche: besser wäre es wahrlich für einen solchen, dass ihm ein kräftiger Mann einen scharfen, mit Öl gereinigten Speer in die Brust stieße, als dass er von mächtigen Adeligen, Brahmanen oder Bürgern ehrerbietigen Handgruß entgegennimmt ....

». . . Ich sage euch, ihr Mönche, ich künde euch, ihr Mönche: besser wäre es wahrlich für eine solchen, dass ihm ein kräftiger Mann einen glühenden, feurigen, flammenden, lodernden Eisenpanzer um den Leib legte, als dass er das von mächtigen Adeligen, Brahmanen oder Bürgern aus Vertrauen gespendete Gewand anlegt ....

». . . Ich sage euch, ihr Mönche, ich künde euch, ihr Mönche: besser wäre es wahrlich für einen solchen, dass ihm ein kräftiger Mann mit einer glühenden, feurigen, flammenden, lodernden Eisenstange den Mund aufrisse und eine glühende, feurige, flammende, lodernde Eisenkugel in seinen Mund fallen ließe, die ihm Lippen, Mund, Zunge, Kehle und Leib verbrennt und Eingeweide und Gekröse mit sich führend hinten wieder herauskommt, als dass er die von mächtigen Adeligen, Brahmanen oder Bürgern aus Vertrauen gespendete Almosenspeise verzehrt . . . .

». . . Ich sage euch, ihr Mönche, ich künde euch, ihr Mönche: besser wäre es wahrlich für einen solchen, dass ihn ein kräftiger Mann am Schopf oder an den Schultern packt, und ihn auf ein glühendes Eisenbett oder auf einen glühenden Eisenstuhl niederzwingt, als dass er ein von mächtigen Adeligen, Brahmanen oder Bürgern aus Vertrauen gespendetes Bett oder einen Stuhl benutzt . . . .

». . . Ich sage euch, ihr Mönche, ich künde euch, ihr Mönche: besser wäre es wahrlich für einen solchen, dass ihn ein starker Mann an den Füßen packt, und ihn kopfüber in einen glühenden, feurigen, flammenden, lodernden Erzkessel wirft, und er, während er dort kocht, mit dem aufsiedenden Schaum einmal nach oben, einmal nach unten und einmal quer hinüber getrieben wird, als dass er ein von mächtigen Adeligen, Brahmanen oder Bürgern aus Vertrauen gespendetes Kloster bewohnt. Und warum? Dadurch mag er zwar dem Tode oder tödlichem Schmerz verfallen; nicht aber gerät er darum beim Zerfall des Körpers, nach dem Tode, in niedere Welt, auf eine Leidensfährte, in die Daseinsabgründe, zur Hölle. Wenn aber ein solcher ein von mächtigen Adeligen, Brahmanen oder Bürgern aus Vertrauen gespendetes Kloster bewohnt, so gereicht ihm das, ihr Mönche, lange Zeit zum Unheil und Leiden; und beim Zerfall des Körpers, nach dem Tode, gerät er in niedere Welt, auf eine Leidensfährte, in die Daseinsabgründe, zur Hölle.

Darum, ihr Mönche, soll man in solcher Weise streben: 'Mögen denen, deren Gewänder, Almosenspeise, Lagerstatt und Arzneien wir benutzen, ihre Gabe hohen Lohn- und Segen bringen! Und möge unsere Weltentsagung nicht fruchtlos sein, sondern Frucht und Ergebnis bringen!' Danach, ihr Mönche, sollt ihr streben!
Angesichts des eigenen Heiles, ihr Mönche, ist es angebracht, unermüdlich nach dem Ziele zu streben. Angesichts des fremden Heiles, ihr Mönche, ist es angebracht, unermüdlich nach dem Ziele zu streben. Und angesichts des beiderseitigen Heiles, ihr Mönche, ist es angebracht, unermüdlich nach dem Ziele zu streben.«

Also sprach der Erhabene. Während aber der Erhabene diese Erklärung gab, quoll sechzig Mönchen das Blut aus dem Munde hervor; und weitere sechzig Mönche gaben die Askese auf und kehrten zum niederen Weltleben zurück, denkend: 'Gar schwer ist es, Erhabener! Gar schwer ist es, Erhabener!' Sechzig Mönchen aber wurde das Herz haftlos von den Trieben befreit."

[Übersetzt von Nyanatiloka: Die Lehrreden des Buddha aus der Angereihten Sammlung = Anguttara-Nikāya / aus dem Pāli übersetzt von Nyanatiloka. -- 3., revidierte Neuauflage. -- Köln : DuMont Schauberg. -- Bd. 4. --  ©1969. -- S. 72 - 75]

35. So sattatiṃsasahassāni,
pāṇe tattha samāgate;
dhammāmatam apāyesi,
dhammādhammesu kovido.

35.  Kundig, was richtig und was falsch ist, gab er siebenunddreißigtausend Lebewesen, die sich dort versammelt hatten, das Unsterblichkeitsgetränk der Buddhalehre zu trinken.

36. Purisānaṃ sahassā ca,
itthiyo ca tato ’dhikā;
khattiyānaṃ kulā yeva,
nikkhamitvāna pabbajuṃ.

36. Tausend Männer und noch mehr Frauen allein aus Fürstenfamilien verließen diese und wurden Novizen.


6. Mahādhammarakkhita's Mission in Mahārattha



Abb.: Vermutete Lage von Mahārattha (©MS Encarta)

37. Mahāraṭṭham isī gantvā,
so Mahādhammarakkhito;
mahānāradakassapavhaṃ,
jātakaṃ kathayī tahiṃ.

37. Als der Seher [Rshi] Mahādhammarakkhita1 nach Mahāraṭṭha2 gekommen war, verkündete er dort das Mahānāradakassapa-Jātaka3.

Kommentar:

1 Mahādhammarakkhita

"Mahādhammarakkhita Thera

An arahant. He lived at Asokārāma. Once, Tissa, brother of Asoka, saw him seated at the foot of a tree meditating, fanned by a Nāga with a sāla branch. Tissa was later ordained by him. Mhv.v.161, 167; ThigA.i.505; but see Sp.i.561, according to which it was Yonaka Mahādhammarakhita who ordained Tissa; also SA.iii.125.

After the Third Council he was sent as messenger of Buddhism to Mahārattha. There he preached the Mahānārada Kassapa Jātaka, and eighty four thousand people were converted, thirteen thousand joining the Order. Mhv.xii.5, 37; Dpv.viii.8; Sp.i.67. "

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

2 Mahāraṭṭha vermutlich heutiges Mahārāṣṭhra (महाराष्ट्र)


Abb.: Landschaft bei Panchgani, Maharashtra
[Bildquelle: Harshad Sharma. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/harshadsharma/45455134/. -- Creative Commons Lizenz. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-27]

"Mahāraṭṭha.

A country where Mahādhammarakkhita went after the Third Council. It is generally identified with the country of the Marāthī at the source of the Godāvarī. Mhv.xii.5, 37; Dpv.viii.8; Sp.i.64,67."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

"Maharashtra (Devanagari: महाराष्ट्र, literally: Great Nation) is India's third largest state in terms of area and second largest in terms of population after Uttar Pradesh [उत्तर प्रदेश, اتر پردیش]. It is bordered by the states of Gujarat [ગુજરાત], Madhya Pradesh [मध्य प्रदेश], Chhattisgarh [छत्तीसगढ़], Andhra Pradesh [ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్], Karnataka [ಕನಾ೯ಟಕ], Goa [गोआ] and the Union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The Arabian Sea makes up the state's western coast. Mumbai (Bombay) [मुंबई], India's largest city, is the capital of Maharashtra.

Maharashtra was known as "Rashtra" in the Rig Veda, "Rashtrik" in Ashoka's inscriptions, and "Maha rashtra" afterwards, as attested by Huein-Tsang and other travellers. The name appears to have been derived from "Maharashtri" in an old form of Prakrit, an ancient Indian language.

However, there are other theories put forward by different schools of thought. One possible derivation is believed to be the corruption of the term "Maha Kantara", which means "Great Forest". Both these theories did not carry much weight, as can be seen from the name of Maharashtra.

History

Not much is known about Maharashtra's early history, and its recorded history dates back to the 3rd century BC, with the use the Maharastri language, a Prakrit corruption of Sanskrit. Later, Maharashtra became a part of the Magadha empire, ruled by the Buddhist emperor Ashoka. The port town of Sopara, just north of present day Mumbai, was the centre of ancient India's commerce, with links to Eastern Africa, Mesopotamia, Aden [عدن] and Cochin [കൊച്ചി]. With the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire, Maharashtra came under the rule of the Satavahanas between 230 BC and AD 225.

During the reign of the Vakatakas (AD 250–525), Vidarbha, the eastern region of Maharashtra, come under their rule. During this period, development of arts, religion and technology flourished. By the 6th century, Maharashtra came under the reign of the Chalukyas. Later, in 753, the region was governed by Rashtrakutas, an empire that spread over most of peninsula India. In 973, the Chalukayas expelled the Rashtrakutas, and ruled parts of Maharashtra until 1189 when the region came under the hands of the Yadavas of Deogiri [heute: دولت‌آب.]

Maharashtra came under Islamic influence for the first time after the Delhi Sultanate rulers Ala-ud-din Khalji [علاء الدین خلجی], and later Muhammad bin Tughluq [محمد بن تغلق] appropriated parts of the Deccan in the 13th century. After the collapse of the Tughlaqs [سلطنت تغلق] in 1347, the Bahmani Sultanate took over, governing the region for the next 150 years. By the 16th century, central Maharashtra was ruled by numerous autonomous Islamic kingdoms that owed allegiance to the Mughals [دولتِ مغل], while coastal region was annexed by the Portuguese, in their quest to seize control of the spice trade.

By the early 17th century the Maratha Empire began to take root. The Marathas, native to western Maharashtra, were led by Chhatrapati Raje Shivaji Bhosle [छत्रपती शिवाजीराजे भोसले], who was crowned king in 1674.

Shivaji's son and successor, Sambhaji Bhonsle [धम॑वीर संभ‌‌‌ाजी राजे] was captured and executed by Aurangzeb [اورنگ‌زی], the Mughal in the late 1680s. The Mughals forced Sambhaji's younger brother, Rajaram Bhonsle to flee into the Tamil-speaking countryside. He repaired to the great fortress of Jinji (sometimes anglicised to Ginjee) to barely recover in the early 18th century, in somewhat changed circumstances.

Rajaram had a nephew called Shahu Bhonsle who aspired to the Bhonsle throne. In 1714, Shahu's brahmin Peshwa (chief minister) Balaji Vishwanath, helped him seize the Maratha throne in 1708, with some acrimony from Rajaram's widow, Tara Bai.

In the following four decades, the Brahmin Peshwas virtually took over central authority in the Maratha state, reducing Shivaji's Bhonsle dynasty to figureheads. After defeatingh the Mughals, the Peshwas became the dominant rulers of India.

The Peshwas, Balaji Vishwanath and his son, Baji Rao I, bureaucratized the Maratha state. They systematized the practice of tribute gathering from Mughal territories, under the heads of sardesmukhi and chauth (the two terms corresponding to the proportion of revenue collected). They also consolidated Mughal-derived methods of assessment and collection of land revenue and other taxes. Much of the revenue terminology used in Peshwa documents derives from Persian, suggesting a far greater continuity between Mughal and Maratha revenue practice than may be politically palatable in the present day.

The years under Peshwa rule, saw the development of sophisticated networks of trade, banking, and finance; the rise of substantial banking houses based at Pune, with branches extending into Gujarat, the Ganges Valley, and the south; and an expansion of the agricultural frontier.

At the same time, Balaji Vishwanath cultivated the maritime Angre clan, which controlled a fleet of vessels based in Kolaba and other centres of the west coast. These ships posed a threat not only to the new English settlement of Bombay, but to the Portuguese at Goa, Bassein, and Daman.

On the other hand, there also emerged a far larger domain of activity away from the original heartland of the Marathas, which was either subjected to raiding or given over to subordinate chiefs as fiefs. Gwalior was given to Scindia, Indore to Holkar, Baroda to Gaekwad and Dhar to Pawar.

Under the control of the astute Brahmin-Peshwas, the Maratha Empire reached its zenith, encompassing almost the entire Deccan, central India and extending until Attock [اٹ] in modern day Pakistan [اسلامی جمہوریۂ پاکستان] and until Bangladesh [গনপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ].

After suffering a heavy defeat to the Afghan chieftain Ahmad Shah Abdali [احمد شاہ ابدالی], in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the Maratha Confederacy broke into regional kingdoms.

Post-Panipat, the Peshwa's ex-generals looked after the little kingdoms they had been given. Pune continued to be ruled by what was left of the Peshwa family.

Branches of the Bhonsle family itself, relocated to Kolhapur and Nagpur, while the main line remained in the Deccan heartland, at Satara. The Kolhapur Bhonsles derived from Rajaram and his wife, Tara Bai, who had refused in 1708 to accept Shahu's rule and who negotiated with some Mughal court factions in a bid to undermine Shahu. The Kolhapur Bhonsles remained in control of miniscule territory into the early 19th century, when they allied themselves with the British against the peshwas in the Anglo-Maratha wars.

With the arrival and subsequent involvement of the British East India Company in Indian politics, the Marathas and the British fought the three Anglo-Maratha wars between 1777 and 1818, culminating in the annexation of Peshwa-ruled territory in Maharashtra in 1819, which heralded the end of the Maratha empire.

The British governed the region as part of the Bombay Presidency, which spanned an area from Karachi [Urdu: كراچى, Sindhi: ڪراچي] in Pakistan to most of the northern Deccan. A number of the Maratha states persisted as princely states, retaining local autonomy in return for acknowledging British sovereignty. The largest princely states in the territory of present-day Maharashtra were Nagpur, Satara and Kolhapur; Satara was annexed to Bombay Presidency in 1848, and Nagpur was annexed in 1853 to become Nagpur Province, later part of the Central Provinces. Berar, which had been part of the Nizam of Hyderabad's kingdom, was occupied by the British in 1853 and annexed to the Central Provinces in 1903. The British rule was marked by social reforms, an improvement in infrastructure as well revolts due to their discriminatory policies. At the beginning of the 20th century, A non-violent struggle started by Lokamanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak and later led by Mahatma Gandhi [મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી] began to take shape. In 1942, the Quit India Movement was called by Gandhi which was marked by a non-violent civil disobedience movement and strikes.

After India's independence in 1947, the princely states were integrated into the Indian Union, and the Deccan States including Kolhapur were integrated into Bombay State, which was created from the former Bombay Presidency in 1950. In 1956, the States Reorganisation Act reorganized the Indian states along linguistic lines, and Bombay State was enlarged by the addition the predominantly Marathi-speaking regions of Marathwada (Aurangabad Division) from erstwhile Hyderabad state and Vidarbha region (Amravati and Nagpur divisions) from Madhya Pradesh (formerly the Central Provinces and Berar). On May 1, 1960, Maharashtra came into existence when Bombay State was split into the new linguistic states of Maharashtra and Gujarat. Favourable economic policies in the 1970s led to Maharashtra becoming India's leading industrial state.

However, regions within Maharashtra show wide disparity in development. Apart from Mumbai, western Maharashtra is the most advanced. It also dominates the politics and bureaucracy of the state. This has led to resentment among backward regions like Vidarbha, Marathwada, and Konkan. There is a movement in Vidarbha now to separate from Maharashtra and become a separate state largely owing to lack of development and perceived sense of injustice."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtra. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-06]

3 Mahānāradakassapa Jātaka

Mahānāradakassapa Jātaka = Jātaka No. 544:

"Angati, king of Mithilā, in Videha, is a good ruler. One full-moon night he consults his ministers as to how they shall amuse themselves. Alāta suggests new conquests; Sunāma suggests that they shall seek pleasure in dance, song and music; but Vijaya recommends that they shall visit some samana or brahmin. Angati falls in with the views of Vijaya, and in great state goes to Guna of the Kassapa-gotta, an ascetic who lives in the park near the city. 

Guna preaches to him that there is no fruit, good or evil, in the moral life ; there is no other world than this, no strength, no courage ; all beings are predestined and follow their course like the ship her stern. Alāta approves of the views of Guna; he remembers how, in his past life, he was a wicked councillor called Pingala ; from there he was born in the family of a general, and now he is a minister. A slave, Bījaka, who is present, can remember his past life and says he was once Bhavasetthi in Sāketa, virtuous and generous, but he is now the son of a prostitute. Even now he gives away half his food to any in need, but see how destitute he is!

Angati is convinced that Guna's doctrine is correct, and resolves to find delight only in pleasure. He gives orders that he shall not be disturbed in his palace; Candaka, his minister, is deputed to look after the kingdom. Fourteen days pass in this manner. Then the king's only child, his beloved daughter Rujā, comes to him arrayed in splendour, attended by her maidens, and asks for one thousand to be given the next day to mendicants. Angati protests; he will deny his daughter no pleasure or luxury, but has learnt too much to approve of her squandering money an charity or wasting her energy in keeping the fasts.

Rujā is at first amazed, then tells her father that his councillors are fools, they have not taken reckoning of the whole of their past, but remember only one birth or two; they cannot therefore judge. She herself remembers several births; in one she was a smith in Rājagaha and committed adultery, but that sin remained hidden, like fire covered with ashes, and she was born as a rich merchant's only son in Kosambī. There she engaged in good works, but, because of previous deeds, she was born after death in the Roruva-niraya and then as a castrated goat in Bhennākata. In her next birth she was a monkey, and then an ox among the Dasannas; then a hermaphrodite among the Vajjians, and later a nymph in Tāvatimsa. Once more her good deeds have come round, and hereafter she will be born only among gods and men. Seven births hence she will be a male god in Tāvatimsa, and even now the god Jāva is gathering a garland for her.

All night she preaches in this way to her father, but he remains unconvinced. The Bodhisatta is a Brahmā, named Nārada Kassapa, and, surveying the world, sees Rujā and Angati engaged in conversation. He therefore appears in the guise of an ascetic, and Angati goes out to greet and consult him. The ascetic praises goodness, charity, and generosity, and speaks of other worlds. Angati laughs, and asks for a loan which, he says, he will repay twice over in the next world, as the ascetic seems so convinced that there is one. Nārada tells him of the horrors of the hell in which Angati will be reborn unless he mends his ways, and mentions to him the names of former kings who attained to happiness through good lives. The king at last sees his error and determines to choose new friends. Nārada Kassapa reveals his identity and leaves in all majesty.

The story was related in reference to the conversion of Uruvela Kassapa. He came, after his conversion, with the Buddha to Latthivana, and the people wondered if he had really become a follower of the Buddha. He dispelled their doubts by describing the folly of the sacrifices which he had earlier practised, and, laying his head an the Buddha's feet, did obeisance. Then he rose seven times into the air, and, after having worshipped the Buddha, sat an one side. The people marvelled at the Buddha's powers of conversion, which, the Buddha said, were not surprising since he possessed them already as a Bodhisatta.

Angati is identified with Uruvela Kassapa, Alāta with Devadatta, Sunāma with Bhaddiya, Vijaya with Sāriputta, Bīaka with Moggallāna, Guna with the Licchavi Sunakkhatta, and Rujā with Ânanda."

[Inhaltsangabe von: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - >: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- Vol. 2. -- S. 518f.]

38. Maggaphalaṃ pāpuṇiṃsu,
caturāsīti sahassakā;
terasan tu sahassāni,
pabbajiṃsu tadantike.

38. Achtundvierzigtausend erreichten Weg und Frucht1. Dreizehntausend wurden bei ihm Novizen.

Kommentar:

1 d.h. wurden zumindest Stomeingetretene. Siehe oben zu Vers 21.


7. Mahārakkhita's Mission im Yonareich



Abb.: Lage des Yonareiches (©MS Encarta)

39. Gantvāna Yonavisayaṃ,
so Mahādhammarakkhito isi;
kālakārāma suttantaṃ,
kathesi janamajjhago.

39.  Als der Seher [Ṛṣi] Mahārakkhita1 ins Yonareich2 gekommen war, verkündete er inmitten der Leute die Kālakārāma-Lehrrede3.

Kommentar:

1 Mahārakkhita

"Mahārakkhita Thera.

He went after the Third Council to the Yona country, and there preached the Kālakārama Sutta. One hundred and seventy thousand people adopted the Buddha's faith and ten thousand entered the Order. Mhv.xii.5, 39; Dpv.viii.9; Sp.i.64, 67."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

2 Yona vermutlich Baktrien, das heutige Afghanistan (افغانستان) und südliche Tadschikistan (Тоҷикистон)


Abb.: Landschaft in Afghanistan
[Bildquelle: babasteve. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/babasteve/19637055/. -- Creative Commons Lizenz. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-27]

"Yonā, Yavanā, Yonakā

A country and its people. The name is probably the Pāli equivalent for Ionians, the Baktrian Greeks. The Yonas are mentioned with the Kambojas in Rock Edicts v. and xii of Asoka, as a subject people, forming a frontier district of his empire. The country was converted by the Thera Mahārakkhita, who was sent there after the Third Council (Mhv.xii.5; Dpv.viii.9; Sp.i.67).

In the time of Milinda the capital of the Yona country was Sāgala (Mil.1). It is said (Mhv.xxix.39) that at the Foundation Ceremony of the Mahā Thūpa, thirty thousand monks, under Yona Mahādhammarakkhita, came from Alasandā in the Yona country. Alasandā was evidently the headquarters of the Buddhist monks at that time. Alasandā is generally identified (See, e.g., Geiger, Mhv. Trs. 194, n.3) with the Alexandria founded by the Macedonian king (Alexander) in the country of the Paropanisadae near Kābul.

In the Assalāyana Sutta (M.ii.149), Yona and Kamboja are mentioned as places in which there were only two classes of people, masters and slaves, and the master could become a slave or vice versa. The Commentary (MA.ii.784) explains this by saying that supposing a brahmin goes there and dies, his children might consort with slaves, in which case their children would be slaves. In later times, the name Yavanā or Yonā seems to have included all westerners living in India and especially those of Arabian origin (Cv.Trs.ii.87, n.1). Yonaka, statues, holding lamps, were among the decorations used by the Sākiyans of Kapilavatthu (MA.ii.575). The language of the Yavanas is classed with the Milakkhabhāsā (E.g., DA.i.276; VibhA.388).

The Anguttara Commentary (AA.i.51) records that from the time of Kassapa Buddha the Yonakas went about clad in white robes, because of the memory of the religion which was once prevalent there."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

""Yona" (also sometimes "Yonaka") is a Pali word used in ancient India to designate ancient Greek people. Its equivalent in Sanskrit is the word "Yavana". "Yona" and "Yavana" are both transliterations of the Greek word for "Ionians" (Homer Iāones, older *Iāwones), who were probably the first Greeks to be known in the East.

Old World usage

This usage was shared by many of the countries east of Greece, from the Mediterranean to India and China:

  • Egyptians used the word j-w-n(-n)-’
  • Assyrians used the word Iawanu
  • Persians used the word Yauna or Yavanu
  • In Biblical writings, the word was Yāwān
  • In Arabic and Turkish it is Yunan
  • The Han Chinese used the term "Great Yuan" (Ta-Yuan [大宛]) to designate what were probably the descendants of Alexander the Great in the region of Ferghana, centered on his city of Alexandria Eschate [Ἀλεξανδρία Ἒσχατη] (Hou Han Shu, Late Han History).
Indian references

In Indian sources, the usage of the words "Yona", "Yauna", "Yonaka", "Yavana" or "Javana" etc appears repeatedly, and particularly in relation to the Greek kingdoms which neighboured or sometimes occupied the Indian sub-continent over a period of several centuries from the 4th century BCE to the 1st century CE, such as the Seleucid Empire, the Greco-Bactrian kingdom and the Indo-Greek kingdom.

Even long before Alexander's invasion, the Greek settlements had existed in eastern parts of Achaemenid empire, north-west of India, as neighbors to the Iranian Kambojas. The references to the Yonas in the early Buddhist texts may be related with the same.

Role in Buddhism

Edicts of Ashoka (250 BCE)

Some of the better known examples are those of the Edicts of Ashoka (c. 250 BCE), in which the Buddhist emperor Ashoka refers to the Greek populations under his rule. Rock Edicts V and XIII mention the Yonas (or the Greeks) along with the Kambojas and Gandharas as a subject people forming a frontier region of his empire and attest that he sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean, faultlessly naming them one by one. In the Gandhari original of Rock XIII, the Greek kings to the West are associated unambiguously with the term "Yona": Antiochus is referred as "Amtiyoko nama Yona-raja" (lit. "The Greek king by the name of Antiochus"), beyond whom live the four other kings: "param ca tena Atiyokena cature 4 rajani Turamaye nama Amtikini nama Maka nama Alikasudaro nama" (lit. "And beyond Antiochus, four kings by the name of Ptolemy, the name of Antigonos, the name of Magas, the name Alexander" [1])

Dīpavaṃsa and Sāsanavaṃsa

Other Buddhist texts such as the Dīpavaṃsa and the Sāsanavaṃsa reveal that after the Third Buddhist Council, the elder (thera) Mahārakkhita was sent to the Yona country and he preached Dharma among the Yonas and the Kambojas, and that at the same time the Yona elder (thera) Dharmarakṣita was sent to the country of Aparantaka in western India also. Ashoka's Rock Edict XIII also pairs the Yonas with the Kambojas (Yonakambojesu) and conveys that the Brāhmaṇas and Śramaṇas are found everywhere in his empire except in the lands of the Yonas and the Kambojas.

Milindapanha

Another example is that of the Milinda Panha (Chap.I), where "Yonaka" is used to refer to the great Indo-Greek king Menander (160–135 BCE), and to the guard of "500 hundred Greeks" that constantly accompanies him.

Invasion of India

The Vanaparava of Mahabharata contains verses in the form of prophecy complaining that "......Mlechha (barbaric) kings of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlikas etc shall rule the earth (i.e India) un-rightously in Kaliyuga..." (MBH 3/188/34-36). This reference apparently alludes to chaotic political scenario following the collapse of Mauryan and Sunga dynasties in northern India and its subsequent occupation by foreign hordes of the Yavanas, Kambojas, Saka and Pahlavas etc.

There are important references to the warring Mleccha hordes of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas etc in the Bala Kanda of the Valmiki Ramayana also (1.54.21-23; 1.55.2-3).

tair āsīt saṃvṛtā bhūmiḥ
Śakair Yavanamiśritaiḥ || 1.54-21 ||
tais te Yavana-Kambojā barbarāś cākulīkṛtāḥ || 1-54-23 ||
tasyā huṃkārato jātāḥ Kambojā ravisannibhāḥ |
ūdhasaś cātha saṃbhūtaḥ barbarāḥ śāstrapaṇayah || 1-55-2 ||
yonideśāc ca Yavanāḥ Śakṛddeśāc Chakāḥ smṛtāḥ |
Romakūpeṣu Mlecchāś ca Hārītāh saKirātakāḥ || 1-55-3 ||

Foremost Indologists like Dr H. C. Raychadhury clearly see in these verses the glimpses of the struggles of the Hindus with the mixed invading hordes of the barbaric Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Kambojas etc from north-west. The time frame for these struggles is second century BCE downwards. Dr Raychadhury fixes the date of the present version of the Valmiki Ramayana around/after second century CE (Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 3-4).

The other Indian records describe the 180 BCE Yavana attacks on Saketa, Panchala, Mathura and Pataliputra, probably against the Sunga empire, and possibly in defense of Buddhism. The main mentions of the invasion are those by Patanjali around 150 BCE, and of the Yuga Purana, which, like the Mahabharata, also describes Indian historical events in the form of a prophecy:

"After having conquered Saketa, the country of the Panchala and the Mathuras, the Yavanas, wicked and valliant, will reach Kusumadhvaja (Pataliputra)." (Gargi-Samhita, Yuga Purana chapter).

The Anushasanaparava of Mahabharata affirms that the country of Mathura, the heartland of India, was under the joint military control of the Yavanas and the Kambojas (12/102/5).

tathā YavanaKambojā
Mathurām abhitaś ca ye
ete niyuddhakuśalā
dākṣiṇātyāsicarmiṇaḥ.

From the references noted above, it appears certain that the Yavana invasion of Majjhimadesa (Mid India) was jointly carried out by the Yavanas and the Kambojas. The Greek Yavavas were apparently a minority foreigners in India and naturally may have obtained, in this invasion, the military support of their good neighbors, the warlike Kambojas. The evidence from the Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions of Saka great Satrap (Mahakshatrapa) Rajuvula also lends strong credibility to this view.

The Mid India invasion was followed by almost two centuries of Yavana rule which in the light of evidence presented above, appears to have been a joint Yavana-Kamboja rule.

Scientific abilities

Several references in Indian literature praise the scientific abilities of the Yavanas or the Greeks.

The Mahabharata compliments them as "the all-knowing Yavanas" (sarvajnaa yavanaa).

sarvajñā Yavanā rājañ śūrāś caiva viśeṣataḥ |
mlecchāḥ svasamjñāniyatā nānukta itaro janaḥ ||80||
(Mahabharata VIII.30.80).

i.e. "The Yavanas, O king, are all-knowing; the Suras are particularly so. The mlecchas are wedded to the creations of their own fancy."

The "Brihat-Samhita" of the mathematician Varahamihira says: "The Greeks, though impure, must be honored since they were trained in sciences and therein, excelled others....." . e.g:

Mlecchā hi Yavanās tesu samyak śāstram idam sthitam
ṛṣivat te 'pi pūjyante kiṃ punar daivavid dvijaḥ
- (Brhatsamhita 2.32)

Yet another Indian text, (Gargi-Samhita), also similarly compliments the Yavanas saying: "The Yavanas are barbarians yet the science of astronomy originated with them and for this they must be reverenced like Gods" (Gargi-Samhita).

Other references

On the 110 BCE Heliodorus pillar in Vidisha in Central India, the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas, who had sent an ambassador to the court of the Sunga king Bhagabhadra, was also qualified as "Yona".

The Mahavamsa also attests Yona settlement in Anuradhapura in ancient Sri Lanka, probably contributing to trade between East and West.

Buddhist texts like Sumangala Vilasini class the language of the Yavanas with the Milakkhabhasa i.e impure language.

The Yonas and other northwestern invaders in Indian literature

The Yavanas or Yonas are frequently found listed with the Kambojas, Sakas, Pahlavas and other northwestern tribes in numerous ancient Indian texts.

The Mahabharata groups the Yavanas with the Kambojas and the Chinas and calls them "Mlechchas" (Barbarians). In the Shanti Parava section, the Yavanas are grouped with the Kambojas, Kiratas, Sakas, and the Pahlavas etc and are spoken of as living the life of Dasyus (slaves). In another chapter of the same Parava, the Yaunas, Kambojas, Gandharas etc are spoken of as equal to the "Svapakas" and the "Grddhras".

Udyogaparava of Mahabharata (5/19/21-23) says that the composite army of the Kambojas, Yavanas and Sakas had participated in the Mahabharata war under the supreme command of Kamboja king Sudakshina. The epic numerously applauds this composite army as being very fierce and wrathful.

Balakanda of Ramayana also groups the Yavanas with the Kambojas, Sakas, Pahlavas etc and refers to them as the military allies of sage Vishistha against Vedic king Vishwamitra (55/2-3). The Kishkindha Kanda of Ramayana locates the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas and Paradas in the extreme north-west beyond the Himavat (i.e. Hindukush) (43/12).

The Buddhist drama Mudrarakshas by Visakhadatta as well as the Jaina works Parisishtaparvan refer to Chandragupta's alliance with Himalayan king Parvatka. This Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a powerful composite army made up of the frontier martial tribes of the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Parasikas, Bahlikas etc (See: Mudrarakshas, II) which he utilised to defeat the Greek successors of Alexander the Great and the Nanda rulers of Magadha, and thus establishing his Mauryan Empire in northern India.

Manusmriti (X/43-44) lists the Yavanas with the Kambojas, Sakas, Pahlavas, Paradas etc and regards them as degraded Kshatriyas (members of the warrior cast). Anushasanaparava of Mahabharata (13/33/23) also views the Yavanas, Kambojas, Shakas etc in the same light. Patanjali's Mahabhasya (II.4.10) regards the Yavanas and Sakas as anirvasita (pure) Shudras. Gautama-Dharmasutra (IV.21) regards the Yavanas or Greeks as having sprung from Shudra females and Kshatriya males.

The Assalayana Sutta of Majjhima Nikaya attests that in Yona and Kamboja nations, there were only two classes of people...Aryas and Dasas...the masters and slaves, and that the Arya could become Dasa and vice versa. The Vishnu Purana also indicates that the "chatur-varna" or four class social system was absent in the lands of Kiratas in the East and the Yavanas and Kambojas etc in the West.

Numerous Puranic literature groups the Yavanas with the Sakas, Kambojas, Pahlavas and Paradas and refers to the peculiar hair styles of these people which were different from those of the Hindus. Ganapatha on Panini attests that it was a practice among the Yavanas and the Kambojas to wear short-cropped hair (Kamboja-mundah Yavana-mundah).

Vartika of Katayana informs us that the kings of the Shakas and the Yavanas, like those of the Kambojas, may also be addressed by their respective tribal names.

Brihat-Katha-Manjari of Kshmendra (10/1/285-86) informs us that king Vikramaditya had unburdened the sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas etc by annihilating these sinners completely.

The Brahmanda Purana (Upodghata-pada, 16-17) refers to the horses born in Yavana country.

The Mahaniddesa (pp 155, 415) speaks of Yona and Parama Yona, probably referring to Arachosia as the Yona and Bactria as the Parama Yona.

Later meanings

The terms "Yona", "Yonaka" or "Yavana" later took on a wider meaning of Mlechchas/Barbarians and a designation to all foreign tribes or the westerners visiting India (Padama Purana, Srshtikanda, 47.69-75).

Contemporary usage

The word Yona, or one of its derivatives, is still used by some languages to designate contemporary Greece, such as in Arabic (يونان), in Hebrew (יוון), in Turkish ("Yunanistan"), or the Malay and Indonesian languages ("Yunani").

Notes
  1.   Gandhari original of Edict No13: Text"

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yona. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-06]

"Baktrien (lat. Bactria, chines. Ta-Hia [大夏])

der Name einer Landschaft und eines kleinen Königreiches in Mittelasien, welches in der Zeit der Achämeniden nördlich des Hindukusch und südlich des Flusses Amu Darja, mit der Hauptstadt Baktra [Βακτρα; بلخ] (dem heutigen Wazirabad im nördlichen Afghanistan), lag. Das Gebiet, aus dem auch der Religionsgründer Zarathustra stammt, gehört heute großteils zum Norden Afghanistans und zum südlichen Turkestan. Die Bewohner Baktriens waren die Baktrer.

Geschichte

Der Perserkönig Kyros II. [کوروش] unterwarf Baktrien um 540 v. Chr. machte aus Baktrien eine Satrapie des persischen Reichs. Nach der weitgehenden Eroberung des Perserreich durch Alexander den Großen [Αλέξανδρος ο Μέγας ] 330 v. Chr. versuchte der Satrap von Baktrien, Bessos, sich zum selbstständigen König von Baktrien zu machen, doch unterlag er Alexander, der Baktrien nach schweren Kämpfen eroberte.

Nach Alexanders Tod gehörte Baktrien zum Reich der Seleukiden, bis sich der Statthalter Diodotos 256 v. Chr. unabhängig machte und das griechisch-baktrische Reich gründete. Es umfasste auch einen Teil Indiens, löste sich aber um 182 v. Chr. nach einem Krieg zwischen Demetrios und Eukratides in mehrere Reiche auf, die von den Parthern und Indoskythen hart bedrängt wurden. Unter den Königen dieser Reiche werden als die bedeutendsten die Griechen Alexandros und Hermaios genannt.

141-129 v. Chr. war Baktrien von den Yüe-tschi [月氏] besetzt. Auf Hermaios folgte im 1. Jahrhundert v. Chr. ein nichtgriechischer König, Kadphizes [KAΔΦICHC] (Haus Kuschan, Yüe-tschi-Reich).

Im 1. Jahrhundert n. Chr. herrschte der von den Parthern abstammende König Gudopheres über den größten Teil des Reichs; unter ihm verkündete nach der Legende der heilige Thomas das Christentum in Baktrien. Bis 200 herrschte die Dynastie der Turuschkas, bis die Herrschaft der Kuschan, Hephtaliten und (im Südwesten) der Sassaniden diesem Rest hellenistischer Kultur im Osten ein Ende machte und die griechische Sprache durch die einheimische wieder verdrängte.

Infolge der Islamischen Expansion (642 Hauptschlacht mit den Sassaniden bei Nehawend, 712 Eroberungen an Chinas Grenze) wurde Baktrien Teil des arabischen Kalifat.

Seit dem 10. Jahrhundert wurde es von verschiedenen persischen, türkischen und mongolischen Dynastien beherrscht, später schließlich von den Afghanen.

Im 19. Jahrhundert stritten sich England und das zaristische Russland um die Einflussnahme in dieser Region.

Der antike Name Ta-Hia [大夏] findet sich wahrscheinlich im heutigen Wort Tadschik [تاجيک] wieder.

Das „Gold von Baktrien“

Ende der 1970er Jahre fanden Archäologen im heutigen Afghanistan die Überreste eines antiken Gräberfelds. In einigen der Gräber, unter anderem in dem einer wohlhabenden Frau, fand man über 20.000 Goldgegenstände. Das wohl bekannteste Fundstück ist eine aufwändig gearbeitete Krone aus purem Gold, die man auf Reisen zusammenfalten konnte. Der Schatz, dessen Umfang durchaus mit den Grabbeigaben des Tutanchamun vergleichbar ist, konnte nie vollständig geborgen werden, da noch während den Ausgrabungen sowjetische Truppen in Afghanistan einmaschierten. Das Ausgrabungsteam musste fliehen. Das „Gold von Baktrien“ wurde hastig in Kisten verstaut und auf einem Jeep nach Kabul gefahren. Danach verliert sich die Spur des Schatzes.

Erst im Jahr 2002, tauchte der verlorengeglaubte Schatz wieder auf. Er lagerte in der afghanischen Nationalbank. Er war von einem Wächter der Bank dort versteckt worden, als die Taliban an die Macht kamen. Ein deutsches Fernsehteam durfte daraufhin einige der Gegenstände filmen, die Echtheit der gezeigten Stücke wurde vom damaligen Ausgrabungsleiter bestätigt. Mittlerweile ist allerdings erneut unklar, wo sich das „Gold von Baktrien“ befindet und ob es je in einem Museum ausgestellt wird."

[Quelle: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baktrien. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-08]

"Das Griechisch-Baktrische Königreich war ein antiker Staat des 3. und 2. Jahrhundert v. Chr., der von einem griechischen Statthalter in Baktrien gegründet wurde und sich nach Indien ausdehnte. Nach einer Teilung und dem Verlust Baktriens bestand es in Gandhara bis zum 1. Jahrhundert v. Chr. als Indo-Griechisches Königreich weiter.

Die Chronologie und Bewertung des Königreiches ist unsicher und umstritten.

Staatsgründung

Das Reich wurde um 256 v. Chr. gegründet, als sich der baktrische Vasall des Seleukiden Antiochos II. (reg. 261-246 v. Chr.), ein gewisser Diodotos unter Ausnutzung militärischer Niederlagen seiner Oberherren unabhängig machte. Zunächst prägte er Münzen mit seinem eigenen Bild und den Zeichen/Titeln von Antiochos II., dann ersetzte er letztere durch seine eigenen. Nach ihm regierte sein gleichnamiger Sohn, bis diese Familie durch einen Griechen aus Magnesia, Euthydemos I. gestützt wurde.

Die Euthydemiden

Konflikt mit den Seleukiden

Euthydemos I. rückte ins Schlaglicht als er sich einem Angriff des bekannten Seleukidenkönigs Antiochos III. stellen musste. Der kam 208 v. Chr. und schlug am Fluss Areios/Heri-rud die Kavallerie der Baktrer zurück. Der anschließende Kampf um die Hauptstadt Baktra (heute Balkh) dauerte zwei Jahre und drohte einen Einfall der gefährlichen Steppen-Saken in den Iran nach sich zu ziehen. So schloss man einen Vergleichsfrieden, Euthydemos I. durfte sein Königreich behalten, musste aber die Kriegselefanten abgeben und ein Bündnis schließen.

Expansion nach Indien

Das Bündnis sollte durch eine Heirat zwischen Euthydemos' Sohn Demetrios und Antiochos' Tochter besiegelt werden, aber dazu scheint es nicht gekommen zu sein. Nach Antiochos' Niederlage bei Magnesia gegen die Römer bemächtigte sich Demetrios I. der Gebiete südlich des Hindukusch: 185 v. Chr. der Grenzgebiete des Seleukidenreiches, die dem heutigen Süd-Afghanistan und Beludschistan entsprechen, und 183 v. Chr. dreier Westprovinzen des Maurya-Reiches, welches zu dieser Zeit in geschichtlicher Dunkelheit verschwand. Konkret zog er ins Kabultal bzw. nach Gandhara und von dort weiter nach Taxila, einer Maurya-Residenz.

Das Königreich in Baktrien hatte eine dünne griechische Oberschicht, welche durch Neuankömmlinge aus dem Westen am Leben erhalten wurde. Nachdem die baktrischen Könige ihren Einflussbereich zur indischen Grenze ausgedehnt hatten, wurden die Münzen (seit Demetrios II.) sowohl mit griechisch- als auch indischsprachigen Titeln geprägt. Und die Qualität dieser Münzen war hoch - man hatte es nicht mit irgendeiner Lokalmacht zu tun. Analog dazu kam es zu einem Synkretismus von Hellenismus und Buddhismus, dem Graeco-Buddhismus.


Abb.: Graeco-buddhistischer Buddhakopf, Stuck, Hadda Afghanistan, 1.-2. Jahrhundert

Der Usurpator Eukratides I.

Nach bzw. schon unter Demetrios I. wurde das Reich wahrscheinlich geteilt. Der erste Teilherrscher, Demetrios II. (Sohn von Demetrios I., vorher Vizekönig in Kabul) verlor seinen Thron um 171 v. Chr. an einen überragenden Abenteurer namens Eukratides I., angeblich ein Verwandter der Seleukiden. Eukratides bemächtigte sich mit wenigen hundert Mann des Landes, als sich Demetrios II. im Feldzug in Indien befand. Und zwar besetzten die Griechen damals mit Ujjayini in Malwa eine weitere Maurya-Residenz und belagerten unter General Menander schon die Maurya-Hauptstadt Pataliputra, als Demetrios II. umkehren musste. Er kam zu spät -seine Vizekönige (Brüder?) Agathokles (in Sistan) und Antimachos (in Herat) waren schon geschlagen- und wurde mitsamt seiner Familie getötet.


Abb.: Tetradrachme mit Konferfei Menander I.; Av.: König Menander, ein Speer werfend; Rv.: Athena mit Blitz (Inschrift:: BASILEOS SOTEROS MENANDROY, "König Menander, der Retter")
[Bildquelle: Wikipedia]

Anschließend tötete Eukratides I. auch noch Demetrios Bruder(?) Apollodotos I. und eroberte Gandhara (165/4 v. Chr.). Er konnte aber offenbar die Nachkommen Euthydemos südlich des Hindukusch und vor allem den General Menander nicht völlig auschalten. Für den Wohlstand seiner Herrschaft spricht seine Herausgabe von Goldmünzen. Eukratides I. fiel angeblich 159 v. Chr. gegen die Parther Mithradates. Nach anderer Darstellung wurde er bei der Rückkehr nach Baktra/Balkh von seinem Sohn und Mitregenten (Eukratides II.?) ermordet.

Invasion der Yüe-tschi

Eukratides Sohn König Heliokles (ca. 157-135 v. Chr.) war der letzte ernstzunehmende griechische König Baktriens, er soll auch Gandhara beherrscht haben. Der Einfall der Yüe-tschi [月氏] brachte zwischen 141 und 129 v. Chr. die Gebiete nördlich des Hindukusch an ebendiese. Südlich des Hindukusch behaupteten sich diverse Machthaber, in Indien saß z.B. immer noch der General Demetrios II., Menander, der sich um 155 v. Chr. zum König eines Indo-Griechischen Königreichs machte. Diese Könige hielten sich mehrere Jahrzehnte länger als die Herren Baktriens, hatten aber meist nur regionale Bedeutung. Einsickernde Reiternomaden (Saken, Yüe-tschi) beseitigten gegen Ende des ersten vorchristlichen Jahrhunderts auch diese Herrschaften.

Literatur
  • Franz Altheim: Das alte Iran, in: Propyläen Weltgeschichte, hrsg. von Alfred Heuß und Golo Mann, Bd. 2, Berlin 1991 (Nachdruck), S. 189-96. Knapper, aber informativer Überblick.
  • Baktrien, in: Kleines Lexikon des Hellenismus, hrsg. von Hatto H. Schmitt und Ernst Vogt, 2. Aufl., Wiesbaden 1993, S. 93-96. Knappe Darstellung mit umfassenden Literaturangaben.
  • William W. Tarn: The Greeks in Bactria and India, 2. Aufl., Cambridge 1951."

[Quelle: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griechisch-Baktrisches_K%C3%B6nigreich. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-08]"


Abb.: Die Feldzüge Alexanders des Großen [Αλέξανδρος ο Μέγας] und das Alexanderreich 323 v. Chr.
[Bildquelle: Wikipedia]


Abb.: Die Diadochenreiche [διάδοχοι] nach der Schlacht von Ipsos 301 v. Chr.
[Bildquelle: Wikipedia]


Abb.: Seleukos I. Nikator (Σέλευκος Α’ Νικάτωρ) (gest. 281 v. Chr.). -- Römische Kopie eines griechischen Originals, Herculaneum
[Bildquelle: Wikipedia]


Abb.: Die hellenistische Welt 200 v. Chr.

"Der Begriff Hellenismus (von griech. hellenismos = Griechentum) bezeichnet die geschichtliche Epoche vom Regierungsantritt Alexanders des Großen von Makedonien 336 v. Chr. bis zur Einverleibung des letzten Diadochenreiches in das Römische Reich 30 v. Chr, in der sich die antike griechische Kultur bis nach Indien ausbreitete. In diesem Sinne wurde er zuerst vom deutschen Historiker Johann Gustav Droysen um die Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts verwendet; der Begriff hellenismos (im Sinne von Nachahmung des Griechischen) ist jedoch bereits antiken Ursprungs."

Auch heute noch gilt, was Michael Rostovtzeff [Михаил Иванович Ростовцев] <1870 - 1952> 1941 über die schlechte Quellenlage zu und die geringe Kenntnis über Baktrien geschrieben hat:

"Baktrien

Eine der entlegensten Satrapien des Seleukidenreiches, aber eine blühende und wichtige, war das Hügelland Baktrien und der fruchtbare Süden Sogdianas. Es wäre nicht am Platze, hier noch einmal auf die wenigen Tatsachen einzugehen, die uns aus der politischen und dynastischen Geschichte Baktriens bekannt sind. Die letzte, vollständigste und geistvollste Behandlung aller damit zusammenhängenden Fragen wurde von W. W. Tarn gegeben. Das Material ist äußerst dürftig und verstreut, und darum muss jede Rekonstruktion des Verlaufs der Ereignisse mehr oder weniger hypothetisch bleiben.

Zur Unterrichtung des Lesers wird der Hinweis genügen, dass Baktrien nach der Mitte des dritten Jahrhunderts v. Chr. seine politische Unabhängigkeit zu behaupten begann, etwa gleichzeitig mit Parthien. Seleukos II. sah sich gezwungen, die halbe Unabhängigkeit seiner entfernten Satrapie anzuerkennen, indem er Diodotos, deren geschickten und ehrgeizigen Satrapen, eher als seinen Verbündeten denn als seinen Statthalter behandelte und ihm vielleicht eine seiner Schwestern zur Frau gab. Als Diodotos starb (um 230 v. Chr.), vollzog sein Sohn, der seine Macht erbte, den entscheidenden Schritt (wenn ihn nicht schon der Vater zuvor getan hatte) und nahm mit der Unterstützung seines Zeitgenossen, des Partherkönigs Tiridates, den Königstitel an. Seine Regierung dauerte nur kurze Zeit. Er wurde bald von einem gewissen Euthydemos, einem Griechen aus Magnesia, verdrängt, der die Unterstützung der Witwe des Diodotos I., der Seleukidenprinzessin (?), fand und ihre Tochter heiratete, wodurch er sich wahrscheinlich mit der Seleukidendynastie verband.

Euthydemos wurde der eigentliche Gründer des Baktrischen Reiches und der baktrischen hellenistischen Dynastie. Die Zeit seiner Regierung und die seines Sohnes Demetrios war die glanzvollste in der Geschichte des Landes.

Solange das Seleukidenreich stark war, beschränkte sich Euthydemos auf die Grenzen seiner früheren Satrapie Baktrien und Sogdiana. Er war natürlich in der Hauptsache damit beschäftigt, sein Königreich, das starken Angriffen der nomadischen Nachbarn und des angrenzenden Königreiches Parthien ausgesetzt war, zu festigen. Als Antiochos III. seinen großen Zug nach dem Osten ausführte, um seine Suprematie über die orientalischen Satrapien zu behaupten und das Vordringen der Parther aufzuhalten, setzte ihm Euthydemos kräftigen Widerstand entgegen. Da es bekanntlich Antiochos nicht gelang, Baktra, die Hauptstadt des Euthydemos, zu nehmen, war er gezwungen, mit ihm Frieden zu schließen, was (im Jahre 206 v. Chr.) unter ehrenvollen Bedingungen geschah. Tarn hat gezeigt, dass Antiochos sich der Drohung des Euthydemos fügte, daß er sich mit den mächtigen nomadischen Saken verbünden würde.

Der Abzug des Antiochos und seine nachfolgende katastrophale Niederlage im Kampf gegen die Römer bezeichneten den Beginn der Ausdehnung des Baktrischen Reiches auf Kosten der Seleukiden und der Parther. Obwohl es keine zuverlässige Überlieferung gibt, ist es doch wahrscheinlich, dass sich die Herrschaft des Euthydemos und seines Sohnes im Osten wenigstens über einen Teil Ferghanas und vielleicht über einige Gebiete des chinesischen Turkestan ausdehnte, und im Westen über gewisse parthische Provinzen einschließlich Margiana (der reichen Oase von Merw). Im Süden gewann Demetrios nach dem Tode seines Vaters (um 189 v. Chr.) einige seleukidische Provinzen: sicherlich die Paropamisaden und höchstwahrscheinlich Areia, Arachosien und Seistan. Schließlich ließ er sich auf den ehrgeizigen, wichtigen Feldzug zur Eroberung Indiens ein, dessen Verlauf verhältnismäßig gut bekannt ist; dieser Feldzug machte ihn für eine kurze Zeit zum Nachfolger der großen Maurya-Könige und zum mächtigsten Herrscher der östlichen hellenistischen Welt.

Diese Skizze der frühen politischen Geschichte Baktriens, die sich auf die Untersuchung Tarns stützt, ist natürlich nur ein Versuch und stark hypothetisch. Unsere Überlieferung ist hoffnungslos unzulänglich, aber es besteht kein Zweifel, dass Baktrien im späten dritten und frühen zweiten Jahrhundert eine Großmacht darstellte, die auf die allgemeine Entwicklung der hellenistischen Welt einigen Einfluss ausgeübt hätte, wenn nicht die nachfolgenden Ereignisse eingetreten wären, von denen ich später sprechen werde.

Wir wüssten gerne mehr über die wirtschaftliche und gesellschaftliche Struktur des riesigen, reichen Königreichs Baktrien, aber es gibt praktisch kein Material darüber. Unsere literarischen Quellen enthalten wenig Wertvolles, und archäologisches Material fehlt fast völlig. Die schönen Serien baktrischer Münzen, eine unserer Hauptquellen für die Rekonstruktion der dynastischen und politischen Geschichte des Landes, geben einige Hinweise auf seine wirtschaftliche Bedeutung und seine Handelsbeziehungen, aber sonst bringen sie wenig Angaben wirtschaftlicher Art. Die archäologische Erforschung Afghanistans und Russisch-Turkestans steckt noch in ihren Anfängen. Die Hauptstadt Baktra ist niemals systematisch ausgegraben worden. Die Versuchsgrabung von A. Foucher erreichte die untere Schicht nicht. Die methodische Arbeit, die in letzter Zeit M. Hackin mit seinen Mitarbeitern in Afghanistan leistete, hat ausgezeichnete Ergebnisse gebracht, aber diese beziehen sich meist auf eine viel spätere Zeit. Erst jüngst begann jedoch Hackin die Erforschung eines vielversprechenden Platzes, der Ruinen der reichen, großen Doppelstadt Alexandria-Kapisa, der Hauptstadt der Satrapie der Paropamisaden. Es sieht so aus, als hätten wir bald eine Konkurrenz zu dem berühmten Taxila.

Es erübrigt sich, ausführlich von den glänzenden Ausgrabungen Sir John Marshalls und seiner Mitarbeiter und Nachfolger in Taxila zu sprechen, der bekannten Hauptstadt des 'Taxilos', des Verbündeten Alexanders. Einige wenige Worte werden genügen.

Die Ruinen der drei aufeinanderfolgenden Städte von Taxila, die nahe beieinander erbaut waren, haben reiches, genau datiertes Material gebracht.

Leider ist von diesen dreien die Stadt des Demetrios und seiner Nachfolger am schlechtesten bekannt. Man muss sich daran erinnern, dass Demetrios nach seiner Eroberung Taxilas nicht in der eroberten Stadt zu bleiben gedachte. Die Funde aus den Ruinen dieser frühesten Stadt (unter dem Hügel von Bhir), die sich im Stadium der Ausgrabung befinden, stammen alle etwa aus der Zeit vom siebenten bis zum dritten Jahrhundert v. Chr. Demetrios erbaute offenbar selbst eine neue Stadt, die unter dem Hügel von Sirkap begraben lag; sie ist sorgfältig ausgegraben worden, aber die Ausgrabungen haben nur sehr wenig für sie erbracht. Sie haben gezeigt, daß diese hellenistische Stadt, die etwa von 189 bis 80 v. Chr. in den Händen der Griechen war, von ihren Nachfolgern in Taxila, den Saken und Pahlavi, im ersten Jahrhundert v. Chr. und im ersten Jahrhundert n. Chr. vollständig wiederaufgebaut wurde. Die reichen Entdeckungen, die bei den Ausgrabungen dort gemacht wurden, gehören alle in diese Zeit und beweisen, dass die Stadt von Sirkap, wie wir sie kennen, nicht griechisch, sondern sakisch war. In der zweiten Hälfte des ersten Jahrhunderts wurde das sakische Taxila seinerseits von den Kushan erobert, die es verließen und sich eine neue Stadt erbauten, die dritte Stadt von Taxila, die unter dem Hügel von Sirsukh liegt und sehr wenig erforscht worden ist. Der genaue Plan der hellenistischen Stadt Taxila und der Typus ihrer Bauten sind demzufolge unbekannt. Die einzige Tatsache, die gesichert erscheint, betrifft die Befestigungen und die Ausdehnung der Stadt. Sie war aller Wahrscheinlichkeit nach viel größer als die sakische und nicht von der erhaltenen steinernen Mauer, sondern von einem starken Erdwall umgeben. Es läßt sich unmöglich sagen, ob die ausgegrabenen Bauten, die als einheimische gekennzeichnet sind, in der gleichen oder fast der gleichen Form in hellenistischer Zeit bestanden haben. Es ist schwer, mit Tarn zu glauben, dass sich Demetrios eine Stadt des einheimischen, nicht des griechischen Typus erbaute318.

Von der Wirtschafts- und Gesellschaftsstruktur des Baktrischen Reiches ist sehr wenig bekannt. Die folgende Skizze, die auf dem von Tarn gesammelten und erklärten Material beruht, ist darum nicht mehr als ein Versuch. Baktrien und Sogdiana, vor allem das letztere, besaßen reiche Naturschätze. Jedermann kennt den natürlichen Reichtum Russisch-Turkestans, des Landes rings um Samarkand: In seinen landwirtschaftlichen Möglichkeiten kommt es Ägypten und Babylonien gleich. Es besteht kein Zweifel, dass hier seit unvordenklichen Zeiten eine entwickelte Landwirtschaft blühte. Während Sogdiana ein Gebiet der reichen Felder und schönen Gärten war, war das eigentliche Baktrien sowohl ein Agrarland als auch ein Land ausgedehnter Weidewirtschaft. Die baktrische Reiterei war berühmt, und es besteht kein Grund zu der Annahme, dass die Pferde aus fremden Ländern eingeführt worden wären. Bei allem Getreide- und Viehreichtum war das

Land arm an Metallen: Im modernen Afghanistan und Turkestan gibt es keine bedeutenden Silberminen und keine Goldminen, und so war es auch im Altertum. Es mag in Baktrien und Sogdiana einige Fundstätten von Halbedelsteinen gegeben haben, aber sie werden nicht viel zum Reichtum des Landes beigetragen haben.

Baktriens eigentliche Quelle des Reichtums war neben der Agrar- und Weidewirtschaft der Transithandel auf den Karawanenstraßen, die das Land durchquerten, den Straßen, die Indien mit den iranischen Ländern und durch diese mit Mesopotamien und Syrien verbanden. Unsere Kenntnisse über diese Dinge sind gering. Wir wissen jedoch, dass die Hauptstadt Baktra wegen ihrer Bazare und Märkte berühmt war und dass Baktrien den Ruf genoss, ein Land der Kaufleute zu sein. Außerdem zeigen ein neuerer Fund syrischen Glases feinster Art (erstes Jahrhundert n. Chr.) und indische Elfenbeinarbeiten aus den Ruinen von Kapisa (oben, S. 426), die allerdings aus viel späterer Zeit stammen, dass sogar in der Zeit, als der römische Handel mit Indien zum größten Teil über See ging, auf den Karawanenstraßen zu Lande zwischen Indien und Syrien, die Baktrien durchquerten, reges Leben herrschte. In frühhellenistischer Zeit, als die Seeroute noch nicht so gut entwickelt war, müssen sie noch stärker benützt worden sein. Ich habe bereits erwähnt, dass die ersten Seleukiden reichlich Elfenbein und Spezereien zu ihrer Verfügung hatten, und ich bin überzeugt, dass ein großer Teil davon zu Lande und nicht über See (das heißt durch den Persischen Golf) nach Syrien kam. Ich werde auf diesen Punkt später zurückkommen.

Neben seinen Verbindungen mit Syrien im Westen pflegte Baktrien aller Wahrscheinlichkeit nach einen lebhaften Handel mit dem Norden und Nordwesten, mit Westsibirien und Südrussland. Die Zwischenhändler zwischen den Baktriern und den iranischen Nomaden des Nordens waren wahrscheinlich die Saken. Aus Sibirien versorgte sich Baktrien in seiner Frühzeit mit Gold. Unser Material über seine Handelsbeziehungen mit dem Norden und Nordwesten in hellenistischer Zeit ist dürftig, doch lässt es meiner Meinung nach sichere Schlüsse zu. Mehrere schöne Stücke der Goldschmiedekunst und Toreutik in einem eigenartigen Stil, die sich in Sibirien und in Südrussland, vor allem im Kubangebiet und auf der Tamanhalbinsel, fanden, wurden sicherlich von anderen griechisch-iranischen Künstlern als denen Südrusslands, deren Stil uns vertraut ist, hergestellt. Die wahrscheinlichste Annahme ist, dass sie in Baktrien gefertigt und nach Sibirien und Südrussland importiert wurden.

Diesen Stil habe ich in mehreren Abhandlungen untersucht. Er ist einerseits durch seine Vorliebe für Polychromie charakterisiert und andererseits durch seinen kraftvollen, pathetischen Naturalismus, der hauptsächlich in Gruppen kämpfender Tiere zum Ausdruck kommt. Er hatte ein langes Leben. Von den Baktriern wurde er durch die Saken übernommen, mit denen

er nach Nordindien und auch nach Südrussland wanderte. Die Saken übermittelten ihn den Sarmaten, mit denen er ein zweites Mal nach Südrussland kam. Diese Tatsachen zeigen, dass die einmal geschaffenen Beziehungen zwischen Baktrien und dem Norden noch lange nach dem politischen Tod des hellenistischen Baktriens fortdauerten.

Die schöne Münzprägung der ersten baktrischen Könige - mit ihrem attischen Fuß und ihren verschiedenen seleukidischen Typen ein Zweig der Seleukidenprägung - diente ihrer Bestimmung gemäß dem Karawanenhandel Baktriens und Indiens. Das fast vollständige Fehlen seleukidischer Münzen in den baktrischen und indischen Schatzfunden weist ebenso darauf hin wie die Tatsache, dass Münzen, die von den Seleukiden nach dem Abfall Baktriens geprägt wurden, nur selten in Streufunden auftreten. Es ist nicht unwahrscheinlich, daß seleukidisches Gold und Silber, das Baktrien direkt oder durch Parthien erreichte, von den baktrischen Königen neu geprägt wurde. Neben Münzen des schweren attischen Fußes, meist Tetradrachmen, prägten sie und ihre Nachfolger in Indien vor allem in der Spätzeit zahlreiche Münzen leichteren Gewichts für den örtlichen Warenaustausch. Obwohl die Verwendung des Geldes den Indern in vorgriechischer Zeit nicht fremd war, ließen es doch erst Alexanders Eroberung des Ostens und die Griechenherrschaft in Baktrien und Indien im Wirtschaftsleben dieses Teiles der Kulturwelt stärker hervortreten, während Parthien mit seinen reichen Prägungen und seinen vielen Münzstätten im Westen und Osten als Verbindungsglied zwischen Baktrien und dem Seleukidenreich diente. Es sei bemerkt, dass die Nachfolger der Griechen in Baktrien und Indien, die Yüe-tschi (Kuschan) und die Saken, in dieser wie in manch anderer Hinsicht die Traditionen ihrer Vorgänger übernahmen.

Die besondere Eigenart der Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftsstruktur Baktriens und Sogdianas ist ein Gegenstand von Mutmaßungen. Beide Länder besaßen einige griechische Städte, meist Gründungen Alexanders und militärische Stützpunkte. Zumindest ein Teil ihrer Bevölkerung bestand aus Griechen. Es gibt kein Material, das uns irgendeine Vorstellung von den Verfassungen dieser Städte und von ihrem Verhältnis zum König vermittelte. Neben den Städten gab es in Baktrien wie in anderen hellenistischen Monarchien ländliche Siedlungen militärischen Charakters, die sogenannten κατοικίαι.

Baktrien war jedoch ein iranisches Land. Der Hauptteil der Bevölkerung bestand aus Iraniern und einigen voriranischen Stämmen. Die kraftvolle Stärke seines iranischen Adels, der Feudalherren der vielen über Baktrien und Sogdiana verstreuten Dörfer, wird durch die Alexandergeschichte beleuchtet; aber von seinen Schicksalen unter der Regierung des Euthydemos und Demetrios wissen wir praktisch nichts. Die Tatsachen jedoch, dass sich das Land den Ruf seiner ausgezeichneten Kavallerie erhielt und dass Euthydemos gegen Antiochos III. 10000 Reiter einsetzte, zeigen, dass sein Feudaladel zahlreich, stark und reich war und mit den griechischen Herrschern in friedlichem Verhältnis lebte, was bedeutet, dass die baktrischen Herrscher in der gesellschaftlichen und wirtschaftlichen Struktur, die sie aus der Vergangenheit übernommen hatten, keinerlei Veränderungen vornahmen.

Wie in anderen Teilen des früheren Persischen Reiches lebte dieser Feudaladel in befestigten Landhäusern, die von Dörfern umgeben waren. In einem Lande wie Baktrien, das Nomadenüberfällen ausgesetzt war, wurden diese Dörfer von ihren Feudalherren im eigenen Interesse allmählich befestigt. Das Gleiche geschah wahrscheinlich bei den größeren, stadtartigen Dörfern mit ihrer Handwerker- und Kaufmannsbevölkerung, die in unmittelbarer Abhängigkeit vom König gestanden haben mögen. Solche Städte sind heute noch im Osten allgemein. Die Dörfer und Stadtsiedlungen besaßen ihre Ältesten und Oberhäupter und ein gewisses Maß Selbstverwaltung. Dies betrachte ich als eine natürliche Entwicklung in einem Lande, in dem die Zentralgewalt ihren Untertanen eine Stetigkeit der sozialen Struktur gewährte und die Feudalherren sich nicht mehr vor ihren eigenen Hörigen fürchteten. Es ist möglich, dass dies von der Zentralgewalt unterstützt und gefördert wurde, aber ich sehe in unserer jämmerlich lückenhaften Überlieferung keinerlei Anzeichen dafür, dass von den Königen irgendwelche Versuche unternommen worden wären, die Leibeigenen in freie Bauern umzuwandeln.

Auf diese Weise wurden Baktrien und Sogdiana allmählich von Hunderten von Städten, befestigten Dörfern und Stadtsiedlungen bedeckt und erwarben sich den Ruf eines Landes der tausend Städte. Diese Bezeichnung ist in unseren griechischen Quellen verwendet, und Chang K'ien, der das Land bald, nachdem es von den Griechen an die Yüe-tschi übergegangen war, besuchte, sagt, dass die Bevölkerung Baktriens in ummauerten Städten lebte. Als er auf die Übergangszeit zwischen dem Zusammenbruch der Griechenherrschaft und der Errichtung des neuen Regimes durch die neuen Herren, die Kushans, zu sprechen kommt, beschreibt er das Land als eines, ,das keinen großen König oder Khan hat, vielmehr haben überall die Städte und Stadtsiedlungen ihre eigenen kleinen Khane'. Das ist nicht überraschend. Die Feudalherren der Vergangenheit waren von den Kushan ausgerottet und damals noch nicht durch neue ersetzt worden; so werden wohl in den Dörfern und Städten die reicheren und angeseheneren Mitglieder der Gemeinde als Oberhäupter aufgetreten sein. Die Kuschan brauchten einige Beauftragte, auf die sie sich bei der Besteuerung verlassen konnten, und sie waren noch nicht imstande, ihre neuen Untertanen vor Raub und Überfall zu schützen. Wie lange diese .Munizipalautonomie' andauerte, ist nicht festzustellen. Wir können auch nicht sagen, ob und in welchem Ausmaß diese ,Autonomie' unter den Griechen bestanden hatte.

Das Verhältnis zwischen den griechischen Königen und den Feudalherren, die Verpflichtungen der letzteren gegenüber der Krone und das Besteuerungssystem des Euthydemos sind uns völlig unbekannt.

Es scheint jedoch klar zu sein, dass den Herrschern Baktriens gelang, was die Seleukiden und ihre Satrapen niemals erreichten: Sie schufen ein dauerndes gutes Einvernehmen zwischen zwei Nationen, den Iraniern und den Griechen, und schufen Frieden und Eintracht unter Menschen, die in zwei völlig verschiedenen Lebensformen lebten, Lebensformen, die auf verschiedenen Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftssystemen beruhten, deren jedes in sich geschlossen und tief verwurzelt war. Darin ähnelten sie stark den Parthern, mit dem wichtigen Unterschied jedoch, dass die Arsakiden selbst Iranier waren und dass in ihrer Monarchie die beherrschende Rolle von den Iraniern und nicht von den Griechen gespielt wurde.

Der Aufbau der anderen Teile des Baktrischen Reiches war wahrscheinlich dem des Kernlandes sehr ähnlich. Tarn hat gezeigt, dass es ein eigenes politisches System besaß, obwohl es sich in anderen Dingen nicht sehr vom Seleukidenreich unterschied. Die Regierungsgewalt in den Hauptteilen lag nicht bei Satrapen, sondern bei Unterkönigen, die der Familie des herrschenden Monarchen angehörten. Ein jeder besaß den Königstitel und seine eigenen Einkünfte. Dieses System passte wahrscheinlich besser als das seleukidische zu dem iranischen Charakter des Reiches, insofern es den Machthabern zweiten Ranges größere Autorität verlieh und den Stolz ihrer Untertanen, der iranischen Feudalherren, befriedigte.

Es ist unmöglich, hier in eine Erörterung der Frage einzutreten, wie De-metrios seine indischen Unterkönigreiche einrichtete und sie seinen Nachfolgern, den griechischen Königen Indiens, überließ. Die dürftigen Angaben, die wir besitzen, scheinen zu zeigen, dass die neuen griechischen Herrscher keine Veränderungen vornahmen, die die Grundlagen des indischen Lebens berührten. Wenn man an den historischen Charakter und an den frühen Ansatz des Kernes des Arthaśāstra des Kautilya glaubt und an die radikale Zentralisierung der indischen Verwaltung, die angeblich von Tschandragupta nach .hellenistischen' Grundsätzen durchgeführt worden ist, so kann man sagen, dass Tschandragupta Indien stärker hellenisierte als Demetrios und Menander. Aber das Arthaśāstra scheint doch eher ein theoretisches und spekulatives Werk zu sein und hat höchstwahrscheinlich nichts mit Tschandragupta und mit der Organisation zu tun, die die Maurya Indien gaben.

Die Glanzzeit Baktriens ging zu Ende, als Demetrios im Kampf mit Eukratides umkam, der entweder ein Rebell oder - wie Tarn annimmt - ein Verwandter des Antiochos IV. war, der in dessen Interesse handelte und ihm bei seinem Versuch half, die Einheit des Seleukidenreiches wiederherzustellen und Parthien niederzuwerfen. Die Ergebnisse dieses Kampfes waren vernichtend. Das griechische Element in Baktrien war geteilt und geschwächt, und Baktrien fiel bald als leichte Beute an die mächtigen Nomaden des Nordens. Der Rest der Griechen zog sich nach Indien zurück und trug zum Fortbestehen und zur Festigung einiger der größeren und kleineren griechischen Königreiche bei, die jedoch rasch indisiert wurden.

Auf das Schicksal des Hellenismus in der Alten Welt hatte Baktrien sehr wenig Einfluss, weniger als Parthien. Seine historische Bedeutung liegt in der Tatsache, dass es für drei Jahrhunderte einen griechischen Staatskörper lebendig erhielt, der, mit den einheimischen - iranischen und indischen -Elementen eng verbunden, als ein Kanal für das Eindringen eines gewissen Einschlags griechischer Kultur nach Zentralasien und Indien diente. Wie stark dieser griechische Einfluss war, kann hier nicht erörtert werden. Von der Kultur und der Kunst des eigentlichen Baktrien ist sehr wenig bekannt."

[Quelle: Rostovtzeff, Michael Ivanovitch <Ростовцев, Михаил Иванович<> <1870 - 1952> : Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte der hellenistischen Welt. -- Reprographischer Nachdruck der Ausgabe Darmstadt 1955. -- Darmstadt : Wiss. Buchges. -- 3 Bde. -- Bd. 1. -- 1998. -- XIX, 476 S., LXVIII Bl. [zweiseitig bedr.] : Ill. -- S. 424 - 432.]

3 Kālakārāma-Lehrrede: Anguttaranikāya II, 24ff.:

(Kāḷakārāmasuttaṃ)

24. (Evaṃ me sutaṃ:) ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā sākete viharati kāḷakārāme. Tatra kho bhagavā bhikkhū āmantesi bhikkhavo ti. Bhadante ti te bhikkhū bhagavato paccassosuṃ. Bhagavā etadavoca:

[PTS Page 025] yaṃ bhikkhave sadevakassa lokassa samārakassa sabrahmakassa sassamaṇabrāhmaṇiyā pajāya sadevamanussāya diṭṭhaṃ sutaṃ mutaṃ viññātaṃ pattaṃ pariyesitaṃ anuvicaritaṃ manasā, tam ahaṃ jānāmi.

Yaṃ bhikkhave sadevakassa lokassa samārakassa sabrahmakassa sassamaṇabrāhmaṇiyā pajāya sadevamanussāya diṭṭhaṃ sutaṃ mutaṃ viññātaṃ pattaṃ pariyesitaṃ anuvicaritaṃ manasā, tam ahaṃ abbhaññāsiṃ. Taṃ tathāgatassa viditaṃ. Taṃ tathāgato na upaṭṭhāsi.

Yaṃ bhikkhave sadevakassa lokassa samārakassa sabrahmakassa sassamaṇabrāhmaṇiyā pajāya sadevamanussāya diṭṭhaṃ sutaṃ mutaṃ viññātaṃ pattaṃ pariyesitaṃ anuvicaritaṃ manasā, tam ahaṃ na jānāmī ti vadeyyaṃ, taṃ mama assa musā.

Yaṃ bhikkhave sadevakassa lokassa samārakassa sabrahmakassa sassamaṇabrāhmaṇiyā pajāya sadevamanussāya diṭṭhaṃ sutaṃ mutaṃ viññātaṃ pattaṃ pariyesitaṃ anuvicaritaṃ manasā, tam ahaṃ jānāmi ca na ca jānāmīti vadeyyaṃ, tam p assa tādisam eva. Tama haṃ neva jānāmi na najānāmī ti vadeyyaṃ, taṃ mama assa kali.

Iti kho bhikkhave tathāgato daṭṭhā daṭṭhabbaṃ diṭṭhaṃ na maññati. Adiṭṭhaṃ na maññati. Daṭṭhabbaṃ na maññati. Daṭṭhāraṃ na maññati. Sutvā sotabbaṃ sutaṃ na maññati. Asutaṃ na maññati. Sotabbaṃ na maññati. Sotāraṃ na maññati. Mutvā motabbaṃ mutaṃ na maññati. Amutaṃ na maññati. Motabbaṃ na maññati. Motāraṃ na maññati. Viññātvā viññātabbaṃ viññātaṃ na maññati. Aviññātaṃ na maññati. Viññātabbaṃ na maññati. Viññātāraṃ na maññati.

Iti kho bhikkhave tathāgato diṭṭhasutamutaviññātabbesu dhammesu tādīyeva tādī. Tamhā ca pana tāditamhā añño tādī uttaritaro vā paṇītataro vā natthīti vadāmī ti.

60. Yaṃ kiñci diṭṭhaṃ va sutaṃ mutaṃ vā
Ajjhositaṃ saccamutaṃ paresaṃ,
Na tesu tādī sayasaṃvutesu
Saccaṃ musā vāpi paraṃ daheyya.

61. Etaṃ ca sallaṃ paṭikacca disvā
Ajjhositā yattha pajā visattā,
[PTS Page 026]
Jānāmi passāmi tatheva etaṃ
Ajjhositaṃ natthi tathāgatānan ti.

 

"24. Im Kloster des Kālaka (Der Vollendete 11)

Einst weilte der Erhabene bei Sāketa, im Kloster des Kālaka. Dort nun wandte sich der Erhabene an die Mönche: »Mönche!« sprach er. »Herr!« erwiderten die Mönche dem Erhabenen. Und der Erhabene sprach:

»Was, ihr Mönche, in der Welt mit ihren guten und bösen Geistern, ihren Brahma-Göttern, den Scharen von Asketen und Priestern, Göttern und Menschen gesehen, gehört, empfunden, erkannt, erreicht, erstrebt, im Geiste erwogen wird, das kenne ich.

Was, ihr Mönche, in der Welt mit ihren guten und bösen Geistern, ihren Brahma-Göttern, den Scharen der Asketen und Priester, Götter und Menschen gesehen, gehört, empfunden, erkannt, erreicht, erstrebt, im Geiste erwogen wird, das habe ich völlig erkannt. All das hat der Vollendete verstanden, doch der Vollendete steht dem nicht mehr nahe.

Würde ich nun sagen: 'Was da in der Welt gesehen, gehört, empfunden, erkannt, erreicht, erstrebt, im Geiste erwogen wird, das kenne ich nicht', so spräche ich die Unwahrheit. Würde ich sagen: 'Das kenne ich und kenne es nicht', so täte ich desgleichen. Würde ich sagen: 'Weder kenne ich es, noch kenne ich es nicht', so wäre es schlecht von mir.

Sieht, ihr Mönche, der Vollendete etwas Sichtbares, so kommt ihn kein Wähnen an, weder mit Bezug auf das Gesehene, noch das Ungesehene, noch das Sichtbare, noch mit Bezug auf einen Seher. Hört er etwas Hörbares, so kommt ihn kein Wähnen an, weder mit Bezug auf das Gehörte, noch das nicht Gehörte, noch das Hörbare, noch mit Bezug auf einen Hörenden. Empfindet er etwas Empfindbares, so kommt ihn kein Wähnen an, weder mit Bezug auf das Empfundene, noch das nicht Empfundene, noch das Empfindbare, noch mit Bezug auf einen Empfindenden. Erkennt er etwas Erkennbares, so kommt ihn kein Wähnen an, weder mit Bezug auf das Erkannte, noch das Unerkannte, noch das Erkennbare, noch mit Bezug auf einen Erkennenden.

So ist also der Vollendete bei den gesehenen, gehörten, empfundenen und erkennbaren Dingen der sich immer gleich bleibende Heilige. Einen anderen sich derart gleich bleibenden Heiligen aber, der edler und erhabener wäre als dieser, den gibt es nicht: so sage ich.«

»Was auch gesehen, gehört wird und empfunden, an welche Meinung auch die Welt sich hängt; inmitten derer, die so selbstgewiss, bewahrt der Heilige sein Ebenmaß. Nicht kümmert er sich, was die Welt für Wahrheit oder Lüge hält.

Schon damals hab' den Stachel ich gesehen, woran die Menschheit hängen bleibt. Da sah ich's, dass sich's so verhält. Doch für Vollendete gibt's keinen Meinungshang.«"

[Übersetzt von Nyanatiloka: Die Lehrreden des Buddha aus der Angereihten Sammlung = Anguttara-Nikāya / aus dem Pāli übersetzt von Nyanatiloka. -- 3., revidierte Neuauflage. -- Köln : DuMont Schauberg. -- Bd. 2. --  ©1969. -- S. 30f.]

40. Pāṇasatasahassāni,
sahassāni ca sattati;
maggaphalaṃ pāpuṇiṃsu,
dasasahassāni pabbajuṃ.

40.  Hundertsiebzigtausend Lebewesen erreichten Weg und Frucht1. Zehntausend wurden Novizen.

Kommentar:

1 d.h. wurden zumindest Stomeingetretene. Siehe oben zu Vers 21.


9. Majjhima's Mission im Himālaya



Abb.: Lage des Himavat (©MS Encarta)

41. Gantvā catūhi therehi,
desesi Majjhimo isi;
Himavantapadesasmiṃ,
dhammacakkapavattanaṃ.

41. Als der Seher [Ṛṣi] Majjhima1 mit vier Thera's ins Himālayagebiet2 gekommen war, verkündete er die Lehrrede, die das Rad der Lehre in Bewegung3 gesetzt hat.

Kommentar:

1 Majjhima

"Majjhima

An Arahant. He went, after the Third Council, as preacher to the Himālaya country (Mhv.xii.6), accompanied by four others:

  • Kassapagotta,
  • Durabhissara,
  • Sahadeva, and
  • Mūlakadeva.

Dpv.viii.10; MT. (317) has Dundu-bhissara for Durabhissara; Mbv. (115) agrees with MT., but has Sahassadeva; Sp. (i.68) gives their names as Kassapagotta, Alokadeva, Dundubhissara, and Sahadeva.

Majjhima preached the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta and eighty crores of persons became sotāpannas. The five Elders, separately, converted five kingdoms, and each of them ordained one hundred thousand persons. Mhv.xii.41ff."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

2 Himālaya

"Himavā, Himācala, Himavanta, etc.

The name given to the Himālaya. It is one of the seven mountain ranges surrounding Gandhamādana (SNA.i.66).

It is three hundred thousand leagues in extent (SNA.i.224), with eighty four thousand peaks its highest peak being five hundred yojanas (SNA.ii.443) In Himavā, are seven great lakes, each fifty leagues in length, breadth and depth - Anotatta, Kannamunda, Rathakāra, Chaddanta, Kunāla, Mandākinī and Sīhappapātaka; these lakes are never heated by the sun (A.iv.101; SNA.ii.407; cf. AA.ii.759). From Himavā flow five hundred rivers. SNA.ii.437; but according to Mil.114, only ten of these are to be reckoned, the others flowing only intermittently. These ten are:  Gangā, Yamunā, Aciravatī, Sarabhū, Mahī, Sindhu, Sarassatī, Vettavatī, Vītamsā and Candabhāgā.

In numerous Jātakas Himavā is mentioned as the place to which ascetics retire when they leave household life. It is full of woodlands and groves, suitable for hermits (E.g., SA.i.265). In Himavā is a peak named Mahāpapāta where Pacceka Buddhas die (SNA.i.129). Nāgas go to Himavā to give birth to their young (SA.iii.120; cf. S.v.63). The mountain is often used in similes; it is then referred to as pabbatarājā (E.g., S.ii.137; v.464; A.iii.311; M.iii.166, etc.). Sīvalī Thera once went there from Sāvatthi with five hundred others. The journey took them eight days. (Details are given at ThagA.ii.138; PSA.252).

The country round Himavā was converted by Majjhima Thera (Mhv.xii.41). He was accompanied by four others: Kassapagotta, Mūladeva (Alakadeva), Sahadeva and Dundubhissara (Dpv.viii.10; MT.317). Majjhima preached the Damma-cakka-ppavattana Sutta and eighty crores attained salvation. These five Theras converted five kingdoms and each ordained one hundred thousand persons (Mhv.xii.42f).

Devas brought for Asoka's use, from the Himālaya, twigs of the nāgalatā to clean his teeth, healthful fruits, myrobalan, teminalia and mango fruit (Mhv.v.25f), while, for the foundation of the Mahā Thūpa, sāmaneras with iddhi-power brought sweet scented marumba (Mhv.xxix.9).

The Kunāla Jātaka (q.v.) was preached in the region of Himavā. The Buddha took the Sākyan princes there and showed them the various features, including many mountain peaks, such as: Manipabbata, Hingulapabbata, Añjanapabbata, Sānupabbata, and Phalikapabbata (J.v.415).

On fast days the gods assemble in Himavā and hold discourses. Sp.iv.759."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

"The Himalaya is a mountain range in Asia, separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. By extension, it is also the name of the massive mountain system which includes the Himalaya proper, the Karakoram, the Hindu Kush, and a host of minor ranges extending from the Pamir Knot. The name is from Sanskrit himālaya, a tatpurusha compound meaning "the abode of snow" (from hima "snow", and ālaya "abode"; see also Himavat).


Abb.: Perspective view of the Himalaya and Mount Everest as seen from space looking south-south-east from over the Tibetan Plateau.

Together, the Himalaya mountain system is the planet's highest and home to all fourteen of the world's highest peaks: the Eight-thousanders, including Mount Everest. To comprehend the enormous scale of Himalaya peaks, consider that Aconcagua, in the Andes, at 6,962 m, is the highest peak outside the Himalaya, while the Himalaya system has over 100 separate mountains exceeding 7,200 m.

The Himalaya stretches across five nations, Bhutan [འབྲུག་ཡུལ], China [中國], India, Nepal [नेपाल], and Pakistan [پاکستان]. It is the source of three of the world's major river systems, the Indus Basin, the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin and the Yangtze Basin. An estimated 750 million up people live in the watershed area of the Himalayan rivers, which also includes Bangladesh [বাংলাদেশ].

Geography

The Himalaya (pronounced with a long "a": Himaalaya) range runs for about 2,400 km, from Nanga Parbat in the west to Namche Barwa in the east. The width varies between 250-300 km. The Himalayan range comprises three parallel ranges, arranged by elevation and geological age.



Abb.: Composite satellite image of the Himalayan range. The Tibetan Plateau is near the centre and the Taklamakan plain is visible as the lighter area near the top.

The youngest of the three is called the Sub-Himalayan range (Siwalik hills in India) and has an elevation of about 1,200 m. This range is made up of erosion material from the rising Himalaya. Running parallel to this is the Lower Himalayan range, which has an elevation between 2,000–5,000 m. A number of Indian hill stations such as Shimla, Nainital and Darjeeling [দার্জিলিং] are located here. The northernmost range is called the Higher Himalaya and is also the oldest of the three. It has an elevation of more than 6,000 m and contains a large number of the world's highest peaks including the three highest, Mount Everest, K2 and Kanchenjunga.

The Pakistani states of Baltistan [بلتستان], and the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir [Kashmiri: جۄم تٕہ کٔشِیر ज्वम त॒ कॅशीर, Urdu:جموں و کشمیر, Hindi:जम्मू और कश्मीर)], Himachal Pradesh [िहमाचल प्रदेश], Uttaranchal [उत्तरांचल], Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh [अरुणाचल प्रदेश] lie mostly in the Himalaya. The southern part of the Tibet Autonomous Region [བོད་རང་སྐྱོང་ལྗོངས་; 西藏自治区] of China also lies on the Himalaya.

Ecology

The flora and fauna of the Himalaya varies with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice and snow at the highest elevations. The amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the front of the range. This diversity of climate, altitude, rainfall and soil conditions generates a variety of distinct plant and animal communities, or ecoregions.

Lowland forests

On the Indo-Gangetic plain at the base of the mountains, an alluvial plain drained by the Indus and Ganges-Brahmaputra river systems, vegetation varies from west to east with rainfall. The xeric Northwestern thorn scrub forests occupy the plains of Pakistan and the Indian Punjab [ਪੰਜਾਬ]. Further east lie the Upper Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests of Uttar Pradesh [उत्तर प्रदेश] and Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests of Bihar [बिहार] and West Bengal [পশ্চিম বঙ]. These are monsoon forests, with drought-deciduous trees that lose their leaves during the dry season. The moister Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests occupy the plains of Assam [অসম].

The Terai belt

Above the alluvial plain lies the Terai belt, a seasonally marshy zone of sand and clay soils. The Terai has higher rainfall than the plains, and the downward-rushing rivers of the Himalaya slow down and spread out in the flatter Terai zone, depositing fertile silt during the monsoon season and receding in the dry season. The Terai has a high water table, and the central part of the Terai belt is occupied by the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands, a mosaic of grasslands, savannas, deciduous and evergreen forests that includes some of the world's tallest grasslands. The grasslands of the Terai belt are home to the Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis).

The Bhabhar belt

Above the Terai belt is an upland zone known as the Bhabhar, with porous and rocky soils, made up of debris washed down from the higher ranges. The Bhabhar and the lower Siwalik ranges have a subtropical climate. The Himalayan subtropical pine forests occupy the western end of the subtropical belt, with forests dominated by Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii). The central part of the range is home to the Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests, dominated by sal (Shorea robusta).

Montane forests

At the middle elevations of the range, the subtropical forests yield to a belt of temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, with the Western Himalayan broadleaf forests at the western end of the range, and the Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Above the broadleaf forests are the Western and Eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests.

 
Alpine shrub and grasslands

Above the tree line are the Northwestern, Western, and Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows, which yield to tundra in the higher Himalayan range. The alpine meadows are the summer habitat of the endangered Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia). The highest reaches of the range are above the permanent snow line.

Origins and growth 
 


Abb.: The 6,000 km plus journey of the India landmass (Indian Plate) before its collision with Asia (Eurasian Plate) about 40 to 50 million years ago.

Main article: Geology of the Himalaya
The Himalaya are among the youngest mountain ranges on the planet. According to the modern theory of plate tectonics, their formation is a result of a continental collision or orogeny along the convergent boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The collision began in the Upper Cretaceous period about 70 million years ago, when the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate, moving at about 15 cm/year, collided with the Eurasian Plate. By about 50 million years ago this fast moving Indo-Australian plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean, whose existence has been determined by sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean floor and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. Since these sediments were light, they crumpled into mountain ranges rather than sinking to the floor. The Indo-Australian plate continues to be driven horizontally below the Tibetan plateau, which forces the plateau to move upwards. The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal were also formed as a result of this collision.

The Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67mm/year, and over the next 10 million years it will travel about 1,500 km into Asia. About 2 cm/year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalaya rising by about 5 mm/year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also makes this region seismically active, leading to earthquakes from time to time.

Glaciers and river systems

The Himalayan range encompasses a very large number of glaciers, notable among which is the Siachen Glacier, the largest in the world outside the polar region. Some of the other more famous glaciers include the Gangotri and Yamunotri (Uttaranchal), Nubra, Biafo and Baltoro (Karakoram region), Zemu (Sikkim) and Khumbu glaciers (Mount Everest region).

The higher regions of the Himalaya are snowbound throughout the year in spite of their proximity to the tropics, and they form the sources for several large perennial rivers, most of which combine into two large river systems:

    The western rivers combine into the Indus Basin, of which the Indus River is the largest. The Indus begins in Tibet at the confluence of Sengge and Gar rivers and flows southwest through Pakistan to the Arabian Sea. It is fed by the Jhelum [Punjabi: ਜੇਹਲਮ, Urdu: دریائے جہلم], the Chenab [Punjabi: ਚਨਾਬ, Urdu: چناب], the Ravi [Punjabi: ਰਾਵੀ, Urdu: راوی], the Beas [ਬਿਆਸ)], and the Sutlej [Punjabi: ਸਤਲੁਜ, Urdu: ستل] rivers, among others.
  • Most of the other Himalayan rivers drain the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin. Its two main rivers are the Ganges [गंगा] and the Brahmaputra [Assamese: ব্ৰহ্মপুত্ৰ , Bangla: ব্রহ্মপুত্র ]. The Ganga originates as the Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier and flows southeast through the plains of northern India, fed by the Alaknanda and the Yamuna among other tributaries. The Brahmaputra originates as the Tsangpo in western Tibet, and flows east through Tibet and west through the plains of Assam. The Ganga and the Brahmaputra meet in Bangladesh, and drain into the Bay of Bengal through the world's largest river delta.

The eastern-most Himalayan rivers feed the Ayeyarwady River, which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south through Myanmar to drain into the Andaman Sea.

The Salween, Mekong, the Yangtze [扬子江] and the Huang He [黄河] (Yellow River) all originate from parts of the Tibetan plateau that are geologically distinct from the Himalaya mountains, and are therefore not considered true Himalayan rivers. Some geologists refer to all the rivers collectively as the circum-Himalayan rivers .

In recent years scientists have monitored a notable increase in the rate of glacier retreat across the region as a result of global climate change. Although the effect of this won't be known for many years it potentially could mean disaster for the hundreds of thousands of people that rely on the glaciers to feed the rivers of northern India during the dry seasons.

Lakes

The Himalaya region is dotted with hundreds of lakes. Most lakes are found at altitudes of less than 5,000 m, with the size of the lakes diminishing with altitude. The largest lake is the Pangong t'so, which is spread across the border between India and Tibet. It is situated at an altitude of 4,600 m, and is 8 km wide and nearly 134 km long. A notable high (but not the highest) lake is the Gurudogmar in North Sikkim at an altitude of 5,148 m (16,890 feet) (altitude source: SRTM). Other major lakes include the Tsongmo lake, near the Indo-China border in Sikkim.

The mountain lakes are known to geographers as tarns if they are caused by glacial activity. Tarns are found mostly in the upper reaches of the Himalaya, above 5,500 metres. For more information about these, see here.

Impact on climate

The Himalaya has a profound effect on the climate of the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan plateau. It prevents frigid, dry Arctic winds from blowing south into the subcontinent, which keeps South Asia much warmer than corresponding temperate regions in the other continents. It also forms a barrier for the monsoon winds, keeping them from traveling northwards, and causing heavy rainfall in the Terai region. The Himalaya are also believed to play an important part in the formation of Central Asian deserts such as the Taklamakan and Gobi [Mongolian Говь, Chinese 戈壁] deserts.

Due to the mountain ranges, the western disturbances which appear from Iran during winter are prevented from travelling any further, resulting in snow in Kashmir and rainfall for parts of Punjab and northern India. Despite being a barrier to the cold northernly winter winds, the Brahmaputra valley receives part of the frigid winds, thus lowering the temperature in the northeast Indian states and Bangladesh. These winds also cause the North East monsoon during this season for these parts.

Mountain passes

The rugged terrain of the Himalaya makes few routes through the mountains possible. Some of these routes include:

  • Gangtok in Sikkim to Lhasa [ལྷ་ས] in Tibet, via the Nathula Pass and Jelepla Passes (offshoots of the ancient Silk Route).
  • Bhadgaon in Nepal to Nyalam in Tibet.
  • Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh, India.
  • The road from Srinagar in Kashmir via Leh to Tibet. This pass is now less used because of regional troubles.
Impact on politics and culture

The Himalaya, due to its large size and expanse, has been a natural barrier to the movement of people for a long time. In particular, this has prevented intermingling of people from the Indian subcontinent with people from China and Mongolia, causing significantly different languages and customs between these regions. The Himalaya has also hindered trade routes and prevented military expeditions across its expanse. For instance, Genghis Khan could not expand his empire south of the Himalaya into the subcontinent.

Himal

Himal is Nepalese for "range" and is used to name the various regions of the Himalaya. In Nepal, these are as follows:

  • Annapurna Himal
  • Ganesh Himal
  • Khumbu Himal
  • Langtang Himal
  • Manang Himal
  • Rolwaling Himal
Notable peaks
Peak Name Other names and meaning Elevation (m) Elevation (ft) Notes
Everest Sagarmatha [सगरमाथा] -"Forehead of the Sky",
Chomolangma or Qomolangma -"Mother of the Universe"
8,848 29,028 World's highest mountain. First climbed 1953.
K2 Chogo Gangri
[乔戈里峰]
8,611 28,251 World's 2nd highest. First climber 1954.
Kanchenjunga Kangchen Dzö-nga 8,586 28,169 World's 3rd highest. Tallest peak in India. First climbed 1955.
Lhotse - 8,501 27,939 World's 4th highest. First climbed 1956.
Makalu - 8,462 27,765 World's 5th highest. First climbed 1955.
Cho Oyu Mt. Zhuoaoyou 8,201 26,906 World's 6th highest. First climbed 1954.
Dhaulagiri White Mountain 8,167 26,764 World's 7th highest. First climbed 1960.
Manaslu Kutang - "Mountain of the Spirit" 8,163 26,758 World's 8th highest. First climbed 1956.
Nanga Parbat Nangaparbat Peak or Diamir 8,125 26,658 World's 9th highest. First climbed 1953.
Annapurna "Goddess of the Harvests" 8,091 26,545 World's 10th highest. First climbed 1950.
Gasherbrum I Hidden Peak (Khumbu Gangri) or K5 8,068 26,470 World's 11th highest. First climbed 1958.
Broad Peak K3 (Phalchen Gangri) 8,047 26,400 World's 12th highest. First climbed 1957.
Gasherbrum II K4 8,035 26,360 World's 13th highest. First climbed 1956.
Shishapangma "Crest above the grassy plains"
Gosainthan -Sanskrit for "place of the saint",
8,027 26,289 First climbed 1964.
Gyachung Gangri - 7,922 26,089 First climbed 1964.
Nanda Devi "Bliss-Giving Goddess" 7,817 25,645 First climbed 1936.
Kabru - 7,338 24,258 Never climbed
Bumo Gangri "Unmarried Daughter" 7,161 23,494 Popular climbing peak. First climbed 1962.
 

Religion and mythology

Several places in the Himalaya are of religious significance in Hinduism and Buddhism. In Hinduism, the Himalaya have also been personified as the god Himavat, the father of Shiva's consort, Parvati.
  • Haridwar, the place where the river Ganges enters the plains.
  • Badrinath, a temple dedicated to Vishnu.
  • Kedarnath, where one of the 12 Jyothirlingas is located.
  • Deoprayag, where the Alaknanda and Bhagirathi merge to form the Ganges.
  • Rishikesh, has a temple of Lakshmana.
  • Mount Kailash [कैलाश पर्वत, 冈仁波齐峰], a 6,718 m high peak which is considered to be the abode of the Hindu god Shiva and is also venerated by Buddhists. Lake Manasarowar lies at the base of Mount Kailash, and is the source of the Brahmaputra.
  • Amarnath, has a natural Shiva linga of ice which forms for a few weeks each year. Thousands of people visit this cave during these few weeks.
  • The Vaishno Devi is a popular shrine among Durga devotees.
  • A number of Tibetan Buddhist sites are situated in the Himalaya, including the residence of the Dalai Lama.
  • The Yeti is one of the most famous creatures in cryptozoology. It is a large primate-like creature that is supposed to live in the Himalaya. Most mainstream scientists and experts consider current evidence of the Yeti's existence unpersuasive, and the result of hoaxes, legend or misidentification of mundane creatures.
  • Shambhala is a mystical city in Buddhism with various legends associated with it. While some legends consider it to be a real city where secret Buddhist doctrines are being preserved, other legends believe that the city does not physically exist and can only be reached in the mental realm.
  • Sri Hemkunt Sahib - Sikh Gurudwara where Guru Gobind Singh [ਗੁਰੂ ਗੋਬਿੰਦ ਸਿੰਘ] was meditating and sent to Earth to help humanity.
The Himalaya in fiction
  • Shangri-La is a fictional utopia situated somewhere in the Himalaya, based on the legendary Shambhala. It is described in the novel Lost Horizon, written by the British writer James Hilton in 1933.
  • Tintin in Tibet is one of the series of classic comic-strip albums, written and illustrated by Belgian writer and illustrator Hergé, featuring the young reporter Tintin investigating a plane crash in the Gosain Than massif in the Himalaya. (1960 )
  • The Hollywood movie Vertical Limit (2000), is set in the K2 peak of the Himalaya."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalaya. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-07]

3 Lehrrede, die das Rad der Lehre in Bewegung gesetzt hat (Dhammacakkappavattanasutta): Vinaya I, 10ff.: Erste Lehrrede des Buddha, in der der mittlere Weg, die vier edlen Wahrheiten mit dem edlen achtfachen Weg dargelegt werden.

Atha kho bhagavā pañcavaggiye bhikkhū āmantesi:

10. "Dve 'me bhikkhave, antā pabbajitena na sevitabbā: yo cāyaṃ kāmesu kāmasukhallikānuyogo hīno gammo pothujjaniko anariyo anatthasaṃhito; yo vāyaṃ attakilamathānuyogo dukkho anariyo anatthasaṃhito. Ete te bhikkhave ubho ante anupagamma majjhamā paṭipadā tathāgatena abhisambuddhā cakkhukaraṇī ñāṇakaraṇi upasamāya abhiññāya sambodhāya nibbāṇaya saṃvattati. "

11. "Katamā ca sā bhikkhave, majjhimā paṭipadā tathāgatena abhisambuddhā cakkhukaraṇī ñāṇakaraṇī upasamāya abhīññāya sambodhāya nibbāṇāya saṃvatti? Ayam eva ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo, seyyathīdaṃ: sammādiṭṭhi, sammāsaṅkappo, sammāvācā, sammākammanto, sammāājivo sammāvāyāmo, sammāsati, sammāsamādhi, ayaṃ kho sā bhikkhave, majjhimā paṭipadā tathāgatena abisambuddhā cakkhukaraṇī ñāṇakaraṇī upasamāya abhīññāya sambodhāya nibbaṇāya saṃvattati. "

12. "Idaṃ kho pana bhikkhave, dukkhaṃ ariyasaccaṃ: jāti pi dukkhā. Jarā pi dukkhā, vyādhi pi dukkhā. Maraṇam pi dukkhaṃ, appiyehi sampayogo dukkho. Piyehi vippayogo dukkho, yam p icchaṃ na labhati, tam pi dukkhaṃ. Saṅkhittena pañcupādānakkhandhā dukkhā. "

13. "Idaṃ kho pana bhikkhave dukkhasamudayaṃ ariyasaccaṃ: yāyaṃ taṇhā ponobhavikā nandirāgasahagatā tatra tatrābhīnandanī, seyyathīdaṃ: kāmataṇhā bhavataṇhā vibhavataṇhā"

14. "Idaṃ kho pana bhikkhave dukkhanirodhaṃ ariyasaccaṃ: yo tassā yeva taṇhāya asesavirāganirodho cāgo paṭinissaggo mutti anālayo.

15. "Idaṃ kho pana bhikkhave, dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā ariyasaccaṃ: ayam eva ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo, seyyathīdaṃ: sammādiṭṭhi, sammāsaṅkappo, sammākammanto, sammāājivo sammāvāyāmo, sammāsati, sammāsamādhi,

16. [PTS Page 011] idaṃ dukkhaṃ ariyasaccan ti me bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi. Taṃ kho pan idaṃ dukkhaṃ ariyaccaṃ pariññeyyan ti me bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi. Taṃ kho pan idaṃ dukkhaṃ ariyaccaṃ pariññeyyan ti me bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi.
17. Idaṃ dukkhasamudayaṃ ariyasaccan ti me bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi. Taṃ kho pan idaṃ dukkhasamudayaṃ ariyaccaṃ pahātatabban ti me bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi. Taṃ kho pan idaṃ dukkhasamudayaṃ ariyaccan pahīṇan ti me bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi.
18. Idaṃ dukkhanirodhaṃ ariyasaccan ti me bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi. Taṃ kho pan idaṃ dukkhanirodhaṃ ariyaccaṃ sacchikātabban ti me bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi, taṃ kho pan idaṃ dukkhasamudayaṃ ariyaccaṃ sacchikātabban ti me bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi.

19. Idaṃ dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā ariyasaccan ti me bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi. Taṃ kho pan idaṃ dukkhanirodhagāmini paṭipadā ariyaccaṃ bhāvetabban ti me bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi. Taṃ kho pan idaṃ dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā ariyasaccan bhāvitan  ti me bhikkhave, pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi
.
20 "Yāvakivañ ca me bhikkhave, imesu catusu ariyasaccesu evaṃ tiparivaṭṭaṃ dvādasākāraṃ yathābhūtaṃ ñāṇadassanaṃ na suvisuddhaṃ ahosi, neva tāvāhaṃ bhikkhave, sadevake loke samārake sabrahmake sassamaṇabrāhmaṇiyā pajāya sadevamanussāya anuttaraṃ sammā sambodhiṃ abhisambuddho paccaññāsiṃ. "

24. "Yato ca kho me bhikkhave, imesu catusu ariyasaccesu evaṃ tiparivaṭṭaṃ dvādasākāraṃ yathābhūtaṃ ñāṇadassanaṃ suvisuddhaṃ ahosi. Athāhaṃ bhikkhave, sadevake loke samārake sabrahmake sassamaṇabrāhmaṇiyā pajāya sadevamanussāya anuttaraṃ sammāsambodhiṃ abhisambuddho paccaññāsiṃ. ñāṇañca pana me dassanaṃ udapādi: akuppā me cetovimutti - ayam antimā jāti natthi dāni punabbhavo ti"

Idaṃ avoca bhagavā, attamanā pañcavaggiyā bhikkhū bhagavato bhāsitaṃ abhinanduṃ ti.

22. Imasmiñ ca pana veyyākaraṇasmiṃ bhaññamāne āyasmato koṇḍaññassa virajaṃ vītamalaṃ dhammacakkhuṃ udapādi: yaṃ kiñci samudayadhammaṃ sabbaṃ taṃ nirodhadhamman ti.

23. Pavattite ca pana bhagavatā dhammacakke bhummā devā saddam anussāvesuṃ: Etaṃ bhagavatā bārāṇasiyaṃ isipatane migadāye anuttaraṃ dhammacakkaṃ pavattitaṃ appativattiyaṃ samaṇena vā brāhmaṇena vā devena vā māreṇa vā brahmuṇā vā kenaci vā lokasmin ti.

24. Bhummānaṃ devānaṃ saddaṃ sutvā cātummahārājikā devā saddam anussāvesuṃ: Etaṃ bhagavatā bārāṇasiyaṃ isipatane [PTS Page 012] migadāye anuttaraṃ dhammacakkaṃ pavattitaṃ appativattiyaṃ samaṇena vā brāhmaṇena vā devena vā mārena vā brahmunā vā kenaci vā lokasmin ti.

Catummahārājikānaṃ devānaṃ saddaṃ sutvā tāvatiṃsā devā saddamanussāvesuṃ: etaṃ bhagavatā bārāṇasiyaṃ isipatane migadāye anuttaraṃ dhammacakkaṃ pavattitaṃ appativattiyaṃ samaṇena vā brāhmaṇena vā devena vā mārena vā brahmunā vā kenaci vā lokasmin ti.

Tāvatiṃsānaṃ devānaṃ saddaṃ sutvā yāmā devā saddam anussāvesuṃ: "etaṃ bhagavatā bārāṇasiyaṃ isipatane migadāye anuttaraṃ dhammacakkaṃ pavattitaṃ appativattiyaṃ samaṇena vā brāhmaṇena vā devena vā mārena vā brahmunā vā kenaci vā lokasmin ti.

Yāmānaṃ devānaṃ saddaṃ sutvā tusitā devā saddam anussāvesuṃ: etaṃ bhagavatā bārāṇasiyaṃ isipatane migadāye anuttaraṃ dhammacakkaṃ pavattitaṃ appativattiyaṃ samaṇena vā brāhmaṇena vā devena vā mārena vā brahmunā vā kenaci vā lokasmin ti.

Tusitānaṃ devānaṃ saddaṃ sutvā nimmānaratī devā saddam anussāvesuṃ: etaṃ bhagavatā bārāṇasiyaṃ isipatane migadāye anuttaraṃ dhammacakkaṃ pavattitaṃ appativattiyaṃ samaṇena vā brāhmaṇena vā devena vā mārena vā brahmunā vā kenaci vā lokasmin ti.

Nimmānaratīnaṃ devānaṃ saddaṃ sutvā paranimmitavasavattī devā saddam anussāvesuṃ: "etaṃ bhagavatā bārāṇasiyaṃ isipatane migadāye anuttaraṃ dhammacakkaṃ pavattitaṃ appativattiyaṃ samaṇena vā brāhmaṇena vā devena vā mārena vā brahmunā vā kenaci vā lokasmin ti.

Paranimmitavasavattīnaṃ saddaṃ sutvā brahmakāyikā devā saddam anussāvesuṃ: "Etaṃ bhagavatā bārāṇasiyaṃ isipatane migadāye anuttaraṃ dhammacakkaṃ pavattitaṃ appativattiyaṃ samaṇena vā brāhmaṇena vā devena vā mārena vā brahmunā vā kenaci vā lokasmin ti.

25. Iti ha tena khaṇena tena muhuttena yāva brahmalokā saddo abbhuggañchi. Ayaṃ ca dasasahassī lokadhātu saṅkampi sampakampi sampavedhi. Appamāṇo ca uḷāro obhāso loke pāturahosi atikkamma devānaṃ devānubhāvaṃ. Atha kho bhagavā udānaṃ udānesi: aññāsi vata bho koṇḍañño aññāsi vata bho koṇḍañño ti. Iti hi'daṃ āyasmato koṇḍaññassa aññākoṇḍañño' tveva nāmaṃ ahosi.

26. " Atha kho āyasmā aññākoṇḍañño diṭṭhadhammo pattadhammo viditadhammo pariyogāḷhadhammo tiṇṇavicikiccho vigatakathaṃkatho vesārajjappatto aparappaccayo satthusāsane bhagavantaṃ etadavoca: "labheyyāhaṃ bhante, bhagavato santike pabbajjaṃ. Labheyyaṃ upasampadan ti. "Ehi bhikkhū ti bhagavā avoca. "Svākkhāto dhammo. Cara brahmacariyaṃ sammā dukkhassa antakiriyāyā ti. Sā va tassa āyasmato upasampadā ahosi. 

"17. And the Blessed One thus addressed the five Bhikkhus2: 'There are two extrernes, O Bhikkhus, which he who has given up the world, ought to avoid. What are these two extremes? A life given to pleasures, devoted to pleasures and lusts: this is degrading, sensual, vulgar, ignoble, and profitless; and a life given to mortifications: this is painful, ignoble, and profitless. By avoiding these two extrernes, O Bhikkhus, the Tathâgata has gained the knowledge of the Middle Path which leads to insight, which leads to wisdom, which conduces to calm, to knowledge, to the Sambodhi, to Nirvâna.

   18. 'Which, O Bhikkhus, is this Middle Path the knowledge of which the Tathâgata has gained, which leads to insight, which leads to wisdom, which conduces to calm, to knowledge, to the Sambodhi, to Nirvâna? It is the holy eightfold Path, namely, Right Belief, Right Aspiration, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Means of Livelihood, Right Endeavour, Right Mernory, Right Meditation. This, O Bhikkhus, is the Middle Path the knowledge of which the Tathâgata has gained, which leads to insight, which leads to wisdom, which conduces to calm, to knowledge, to the Sambodhi, to Nirvâna.

   19. 'This, O Bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of Suffering: Birth is suffering; decay is suffering; illness is suffering; death is suffering. Presence of objects we hate, is suffering; Separation from objects we love, is suffering; not to obtain what we desire, is suffering. Briefly, the fivefold clinging to existence is suffering.

   20. 'This, O Bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of the Cause of suffering: Thirst, that leads to re-birth, accornpanied by pleasure and lust, finding its delight here and there. (This thirst is threefold), namely, thirst for pleasure, thirst for existence, thirst for prosperity.

   21. 'This, O Bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of the Cessation of suffering: (It ceases with) the complete cessation of this thirst,--a cessation which consists in the absence of every passion,--with the abandoning of this thirst, with the doing away with it, with the deliverance from it, with the destruction of desire.

   22. 'This, O Bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of the Path which leads to the cessation of suffering: that holy eightfold Path, that is to say, Right Belief, Right Aspiration, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Means of Livelihood, Right Endeavour, Right Memory, Right Meditation.

   23. '"This is the Noble Truth of Suffering;"--thus, O Bhikkhus, of this doctrine, which formerly had not been heard of, have I obtained insight, knowledge, understanding, wisdom, intuition. "This Noble Truth of Suffering must be understood," thus, O Bhikkhus, of this doctrine, . . . . (&c., down to intuition). "This Noble Truth of Suffering I have understood," thus, O Bhikkhus, of this doctrine, . . . . (&c.,down to intuition).

   24. '"This is the Noble Truth of the Cause of suffering," thus, O Bhikkhus, (&c.) "This Noble Truth of the Cause of suffering must be abandoned has been abandoned by me," thus, O Bhikkhus, (&c.)

   25. '"This is the Noble Truth of the Cessation of suffering," thus, O Bhikkhus, (&c.) "This Noble Truth of the Cessation of suffering must be seen face to face . . . . has been seen by me face to face," thus, O Bhikkhus, (&c.)

   26. '"This is the Noble Truth of the Path which leads to the cessation of suffering," thus, O Bhikkhus, (&c.) "This Noble Truth of the Path which leads to the cessation of suffering, must be realised has been realised by me," thus, O Bhikkhus, (&c.)

   27. 'As long, O Bhikkhus, as I did not possess with perfect purity this true knowledge and insight into these four Noble Truths, with its three modifications and its twelve constituent parts; so long, O Bhikkhus, I knew that I had not yet obtained the highest, absolute Sambodhi in the world of men and gods, in Mâra's and Brahma's world, among all beings, Samanas and Brâhmanas, gods and men.

   28. 'But since I possessed, O Bhikkhus, with perfect purity this true knowledge and insight into these four Noble Truths, with its three modifications and its twelve constituent parts, then I knew, O Bhikkhus, that I had obtained the highest, universal Sambodhi in the world of men and gods, . . . . (&c., as in § 27).

   29. 'And this knowledge and insight arose in my mind: "The emancipation of my mind cannot be lost; this is my last birth; hence I shall not be born again!"'

   Thus the Blessed One spoke. The five Bhikkhus were delighted, and they rejoiced at the words of the Blessed One. And when this exposition was propounded, the venerable Kondañña obtained the pure and spotless Eye of the Truth (that is to say, the following knowledge): 'Whatsoever is subject to the condition of origination, is subject also to the condition of cessation.'

   30. And as the Blessed One had founded the Kingdom of Truth (by propounding the four Noble Truths), the earth-inhabiting devas shouted: 'Truly the Blessed One has founded at Benares, in the deer park Isipatana, the highest kingdom of Truth, which may be opposed neither by a Samana nor by a Brâhmana, neither by a deva, nor by Mâra, nor by Brahma, nor by any being in the world.'

   Hearing the shout of the earth-inhabiting devas, the kâtumahârâgika devas (gods belonging to the world of the four divine mahârâgas) shouted, . . . . (&c., as above). Hearing the shout of the kâtumahârâgika devas, the tâvatimsa devas1, the yâma devas, the tusita devas, the nimmânarati devas, the paranimmitavasavatti devas, the brahmakâyika devas shouted: 'Truly the Blessed One, . . . .' (&c., as above).

   31. Thus in that moment, in that instant, in that second the shout reached the Brahma world; and this whole system of ten thousand worlds quaked, was shaken, and trembled; and an infinite, mighty light was seen through the world, which surpassed the light that can be produced by the divine power of the devas.

   And the Blessed One pronounced this solemn utterance: 'Truly Kondañña has perceived it ("aññâsi"), truly Kondañña has perceived it!' Hence the venerable Kondañña received the name Aññâtakondañña (Kondañña who has perceived the doctrine).

   32. And the venerable Aññâtakondañña, having seen the Truth, having mastered the Truth, having understood the Truth, having penetrated the Truth, having overcome uncertainty, having dispelled all doubts, having gained full knowledge, dependent on nobody else for knowledge of the doctrine of the Teacher, thus spoke to the Blessed One: 'Lord, let me receive the pabbaggâ and upasampadâ ordinations from the Blessed One.'

   'Come, O Bhikkhu,' said the Blessed One, 'well taught is the doctrine; lead a holy life for the sake of the complete extinction of suffering.' Thus this venerable person received the upasampadâ ordination."

[Übersetzung: Vinaya texts / translated from the Pāli by T.W. Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg. -- Part I: The Pâtimokkha. The Mahâvagga, I-IV. -- Oxford, 1881. -- (Sacred Books of the East ; Vol. 13). -- S. 89ff.]

42. Maggaphalaṃ pāpuṇiṃsu,
asītipāṇakoṭiyo;
visuṃ te pañca raṭṭhāni,
pañca therā pasādayuṃ.

42. Acht Millionen Lebewesen erreichten Weg und Frucht1. Einzeln bekehrten die fünf Thera's fünf Königreiche.

Kommentar:

1 d.h. wurden zumindest Stomeingetretene. Siehe oben zu Vers 21.

43. Purisaāsatasahassāni,
ekekasseva santike;
pabbajiṃsu pasādena,
sammāsambuddhasāsane.

43. Bei jedem der fünf wurden hunderttausend Männer zu Novizen aus Vertrauen zur Religion des Sammāsambuddha.


10. Sona's und Uttara's Mission in Suvannabhūmi



Abb.: Lage von Suvannabhūmi (©MS Encarta)

44. Saddhiṃ Uttaratherena,
Soṇatthero mahiddhiko;
Suvaṇṇabhūmiṃ agamā,
tasmiṃ tu samaye pana.
45. Jāte jāte rājagehe,
dārake ruddarakkhasī;
samuddato nikkhamitvā,
bhakkhitvāna gacchati.

44./45. Der wundermächtige Thera Soṇa1 und der Thera Uttara2 kamen nach Suvaṇṇabhūmi3. Zu jener Zeit aber kam jedesmal, wenn im Königspalast ein Knabe geboren  wurde, eine furchtbare Rakkhasī4 aus dem Meer, fraß das Kind und verschwand.

Kommentar:

1 Soṇa

"Sona. An arahant monk who was sent with Uttara to convert Suvannabhūmi. Dpv.viii.12; Sp.i.68, 69; Mhv.xii.6, 44ff."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

2 Uttara

"Uttara.

An arahant. He, with Sona, was sent by Asoka, at the conclusion of the Third Council, to convert Suvannabhūmi. They overcame the female demon and her followers, who had, been in the habit of coming out of the sea to eat the king's sons, and they then recited the Brahmajāla Sutta. Sixty thousand people became converts, five hundred noblemen became monks and fifteen hundred women of good family were ordained as nuns.

Thenceforth all princes born in the royal household were called Sonuttara. Mhv.iv.6; 44-54; Sp.i.68f; Mbv.115; The Dipavamsa speaks of Sonuttara as one person (viii.10)."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

3 Suvaṇṇabhūmi vermutlich heutiger Mon-Staat [မ္ဝန္‌ပ္ရည္‌နယ္‌] und andere Küstengebiete Myanmars oder ein Gebiet des heutigen Bengalen oder das Gebiet am Son-Fluss in Zentralindien


Abb.: Landschaft in Niederburma
[Bildquelle: phitar. -- http://www.flickr.com/photos/phitar/47959629/. -- Creative Commons Lizenz. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-27]

"Suvaṇṇabhūmi

A country. At the end of the Third Council, the theras Sona and Uttara visited this country in order to convert it to Buddhism. At that time a female deity of the sea was in the habit of eating every heir born to the king. The arrival of the theras coincided with the birth of a prince. At first the people thought that the monks were the friends of the demon, but later the monks, being told the story, drove away the demon by their iddhi power and erected a bulwark round the country by reciting the Brahmajāla Sutta. Sixty thousand people embraced the new faith, while three thousand five hundred young men and fifteen hundred girls of noble family entered the Order. Thenceforth all princes born into the royal family were called Sonuttara (Mhv.xii.6, 44f.; Dpv.viii.12; Sp.i.64).

There seems to have been regular trade between Bharukaccha and Suvannabhūmi (See, e.g., J.iii.188), and also between the latter and Benares (Molini), (J.iv.15), Mithilā (J.vi.34), Sāvatthi (PvA.47), and Pātaliputta (PvA.271).

The distance between Ceylon and Suvannabhūmi was seven hundred leagues, and, with a favourable wind, could be covered in seven days and nights (AA.i.265).

Suvannabhūmi is generally identified with Lower Burma, probably the Pagan and Moulmein districts. It probably included the coast from Rangoon to Singapore. The chief place in Suvannabhūmi was Sudhammanagara -  i.e., Thaton - at the mouth of the Sittaung River (See Sās. Introd., p.4, and n.3).

Fleet suggests (J.R.A.S.1910, p.428), however, that it might be the district in Bengal called by Hiouen Thsang "Ka-lo-na-su-fa-la-na" (Karnasuvarna), or else the country along the river Son in Central India, a tributary of the Ganges, on the right bank of the river which is also called Hiranyavāha. The probability is that there were two Places of the same name, one originally in India itself and the other in Further India. cf. Sunāparanta."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]


Abb.: Son-Fluss
(©MS Encarta)

"The Son River of central India is the largest of the Ganges' southern tributaries. The Son originates in Chhattisgarh [छत्तीसगढ़] state, just east of the headwaters of the Narmada River, and flows north-northwest through Madhya Pradesh state before turning sharply eastward when it encounters the southwest-northeast-running Kaimur Range. The Son parallels the Kaimur Range, flowing east-northeast through Uttar Pradesh and Bihar states to join the Ganges just above Patna. Geologically, the lower valley of the Son is an extension of the Narmada Valley, and the Kaimur Range an extension of the Vindhya Range. Its length is 784 kilometres (487 miles). Its chief tributaries are the Rihand and the Koel. The Son has a steep gradient (35-55 cm per km) with quick run-off and ephemeral regimes, becoming a roaring river with the rain-waters in the catchment area but turning quickly into a fordable stream. The Son, being wide and shallow, leaves disconnected pools of water in the remaining part of the year. The channel of the Son is very wide (about 5km at Dehri) but the floodplain is narrow, only 3 to 5 km wide. The river has been notorious for its changing courses in the past, as it traceable from several old beds on its east, but has been tamed squarely with the anicut at Dehri, and now more so with the Indrapuri Barrage, a few km upstream."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Son_river. -- Zugriff am 2006-06-05]

"Mon State [မ္ဝန္‌ပ္ရည္‌နယ္‌] is an administrative division of Myanmar [

ပ္ရည္‌ထောင္‌စုမ္ရန္‌မာနိုင္‌ငံတော္‌

]. It is sandwiched between Kayin State [ကရင္‌‌ပ္ရည္‌နယ္‌] on the east, the Andaman Sea on the west, Bago Division [ပဲခူးတုိင္‌း] on the north and Tanintharyi Division [တနင္သာရိတုိင္‌း] on the south.It has a short border with Thailand's Kanchanaburi Province [กาญจนบุรี] at its south-eastern tip. The land area is 12,155 sq. km. Mon State includes many small islands along its 566 km of coastline.

Its capital is Mawlamyine, formerly Moulmein.

Demographics

Although there are no modern figures on the population of Mon State, it is estimated that the population is around 8,466,000. The majority are Mon. However, there is a large number of ethnic Bamar, as well as members of the Kayin,and Pa-O ethnic groups. Many are isolated and many do not understand or speak Burmese. The majority of people are Buddhist.

Economy

Mon State has a cultivated area of nearly 4.5 million acres (18,000 km²), mostly under rice. The major secondary crop is rubber. Orchards and rubber many kind of plantations are found in the mountainous areas. Coastal fishing and production of dried fish, fish sauce and agar-agar are important enterprises. Forests cover around half of the land, and timber production is one of the major contributors to the economy. Minerals include salt, antimony, and granite. Industry includes paper, sugar, rubber tires.

Natural resources such as forest products, and onshore and offshore mineral resources, are exploited only by top Myanmar military leaders and foreign companies. At the present time one of the biggest foreign investments into Myanmar is for the exploitation of natural gas reserves in Mon State.

Sites of interest
  • Kyaiktiyo Pagoda (or) kyaik-isi-yo pagoda - A famous religious site with a steeple built on a rock covered with gold leaf, precariously balanced on the site of a cliff. Legend says that Buddha's hair was placed inside the pagoda, and its power keeps the rock from falling.
  • Thaton - the former capital of an ancient Mon kingdom, much earlier than Bagan.
  • Thanbyuzayat War Memorial - connected with the Bridge on the River Kwai.
History

The Mon were one of the earliest ethnic groups to occupy Burma, moving into the area possibly as early as 1500 BC. The first recorded Mon kingdom, Suwarnabhumi, was centered on Thaton in 300 BC. The Mon converted to Theravada Buddhism around 200 BC. The Mon prospered until around 1000 AD when they came under pressure from new ethnic groups arriving from the north. Successive waves of Burmese and Thai groups slowly eroded the Mon kingdoms, and the last independent Mon kingdom fell to the Burmese in 1757.

Lower Burma, including what is now Mon State, was conquered by Great Britain in 1824 after the Second Anglo-Burmese War. The Mon assisted the British in the war, in return for promises of their own leadership after the defeat of Burma. Hundreds of thousands of Mons who had migrated into Siam returned to their homeland when it came under British rule. However, British promises to restore the Mon Kingdom were never fulfilled. During colonial times, Moulmein had a substantial Anglo-Burmese population; an area of the city was known as 'Little England' due to the large Anglo-Burmese community, however nowadays this has dwindled to all but a handful of families as most have left for the UK or Australia.

In 1947, the Mon sought self-determination from the yet unformed Union of Burma; however Burmese Prime Minister U Nu refused, saying that no separate national rights for the Mon should be contemplated. The Burmese army moved into areas claimed by the Mon nationalists and imposed rule by force which resulted in a civil war. Mon separatists formed the Mon Peoples Front, which was later superseded by the New Mon State Party (NMSP) in 1962. Since 1949, the eastern hills of the state (as well as portions of Thaninthaya Division) have been under control of the NMSP, and its military arm, the Mon National Liberation Front (MNLF). In addition to fighting the central government, the MNLF has also fought the Karen over control of lucrative border crossings into Thailand.

In 1974, partially to assuage Mon separatist demands, the theoretically autonomous Mon State, was created out of portions of Thaninthayi Division, Bago Division, and Ayeyarwady Division. Resistance continued until 1995, when NMSP and SLORC agreed a cease-fire and in 1996, the Mon Unity League was founded. SLORC troops continued to operate in defiance of the agreement.  The human rights situation in Mon State has not improved. International organizations have repeatedly accused the Myanmar government for massive human rights violations in Mon State, including forced labor, arbitrary detention, population transfer, property confiscation, rape, etc."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mon_State. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-07]

4 Rakkhasī: Dämonin

"Rakkhasā

A class of demons, chiefly nocturnal and harmful.

They usually have their haunt in the water and devour men when bathing there.

Some of them live in the sea. E.g., Thag.v.931; SN. vs. 310; J.i.127; vi. 469; DhA.i.367; iii.74; Mhv.xii.45, etc."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

"A rakshasa (Sanskrit: रक्षस, rakṣasa; alternately, raksasa or rakshas) is a demon or unrighteous spirit in Hinduism.

Hindu mythology


Abb.: Rakshasas stören die Meditation des Weisen Vishvamitra. Comic für Kinder.
[Bildquelle: de.wikipedia]

The Ramayana describes them as being created from Brahma's foot; elsewhere, they are descended from Pulastya, or from Khasa, or from Nirriti and Nirrita. Many Rakshasa were particularly wicked humans in previous incarnations. Rakshasas are notorious for disturbing sacrifices, desecrating graves, harassing priests, possessing human beings, and so on. Their fingernails are poisonous, and they feed on human flesh and spoiled food. They are shapechangers and magicians, and often appear in the forms of humans, dogs, and large birds. Hanuman, during a visit to the rakshasas' home in Lanka, observed that the demons could come in any form imaginable.

The great ten-headed demon Ravana, enemy of Rama, was king of the rakshasas. His younger brother Vibhishana was a rare good-hearted rakshasa; he was exiled by his brother the king, who was displeased by his behavior. Vibhishana later became an ally of Rama and a ruler in Lanka. Other notable rakshasas include the guardian god Nairitya, who is associated with the southwest direction.

A female rakshasa is called a Rakshasi, and a female rakshasa in human form is a manushya-rakshasi.

The term has an etymology in common with the term rakṣa, meaning 'defender'.

Usage in the West

The term rakshasa has been used in western literature and culture. The following are some examples.

In Lord of Light

In Roger Zelazny's book Lord of Light the Rakshasa, there spelled "Rakasha", are a type of extraterrestrial beings consisting of "stable fields of energy".

The Rakasha were supposedly once material beings, but long ago used unspecified technology to move their atman into energy fields. This gave them the immortality, but "born of matter they do ever lust after the flesh" (p. 32). Although it might seem rather foolish of the Rakasha to use highly advanced technology to abandon bodies and then find that they preferred having flesh after all, they have the power to sometimes possess human bodies. Since a mortal who inhabits a body dies with it, unless he transfers his atman into an unused body, while a Rakasha can survive the destruction of it's resident body, the Rakasha's choice does give them advantages that not making it would have lacked.

Their natural shape is that of a glowing flame, although they can briefly take nearly any shape they choose to. In their normal shape they are capable of flying, seeing in all directions and surviving most attacks by material weapons (although some compounds can repel them). When inhabiting a human body, they lose the power to fly for unlimited distances and (presumably, as they never do so) to change shape, but gain the ability to enjoy alcohol, good food and sex.

They seem more amoral than intentionally evil, normally lacking consciences. One of their preferred pastimes is gambling, and gambling debts are the only promises that they can be relied upon to keep. Gambling with Rakasha can lead either to death or great power, as the Rakasha can give powerful gifts but have little desire for other material things than the body of their fellow gambler.

The Rakasha seem to have no clear hierarchy, although they are led by a very old and powerful Rakasha called Taraka. They also control several kinds of lesser energy beings, the only kind explicitly named being the "fire elementals" (note that these resemble mobile thunderbolts more than classical, western fire elementals).

In Dungeons & Dragons

In the role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons, the Rakshasa are a type of evil beings from the lawful evil parts of the Outer Planes. They are powerful sorcerers and, although they disdain physical fighting as ignoble, can be dangerous in close combat as well. Two subtypes of Rakshasa, differing from the common Rakshasa exist: Ak'chazar Rakshasa and Naztharune Rakshasa.

Their natural shapes are relatively humanoid although they are clearly not human, as they have the heads of beasts -- usually tigers, but sometimes apes, crocodiles, mantises, or other creatures. Their hands also look disturbing to most humans, as their palms are where the back of the hands would be in humans. The Rakshasa are capable of hiding their disturbing appearance at any time, as they can choose any humanoid form at will.

Rakshasa are solitary beings, although they do occasionally cooperate with each other. Since Rakshasa are ambitious beings, as well as being solitary, sorcerous shapeshifters, they typically hold leading positions in whatever undertaking they are involved in. They are therefore typical boss monsters.

The Ak'chazar have the heads of white tigers and are skinnier than common Rakshasa. They are unusually powerful spellcasters, even for Rakshasa, and specialize in necromantic magic. To use their necromantic powers to their full potential the Ak'chazar often use graveyards or old battlefields as their headquarters. When working on one of their dark schemes the Ak'chazar often let their undead do the physical work while they stay behind the scenes themselves.

The Naztharune have the heads of black tigers and are covered in black fur. They have few magical powers but compensate by being strong fighters, specializing in assassination. They lack most Rakshasa's need to be the leader of any organisation that they are part of, often working for other Rakshasa.

Rakshasa do not have a significant presence in most campaign settings -- they may be present in the setting, but lack a great deal of influence. In the Eberron campaign setting, however, rakshasa were once a major world power, but were defeated and forced into withdrawal from active participation in world events by the couatls.

In other fiction

Although not particularly common in Western fiction, the short-lived 1974 television series Kolchak: The Night Stalker (which influenced The X-Files) has an episode (Horror in the Heights) featuring a Rakshasa which is vulnerable to blessed crossbow bolts.

In the manga Fist of the North Star, the character Shachi is referred to as "Rakshasa, the Asura-devouring beast".

In the Exile and Avernum series of games, Rakshasas are magic-casting tiger lookalikes; they're one of the more particularly nasty adversaries in the later stages of the game.

In the video game Freespace 2 the Rakshasa is a class of enemy Shivan cruiser.

In the Fantasy novel Song in the Silence, by Elizabeth Kerner, the demons are referred to as rakshasa by their dragon enemies.

In the Children of the Lamp novels by P.B. Kerr, the elder djinn of the Marid tribe is named Mr. Rakshasas.

In the Gold Digger comic series, the character Genn is a member of the Rakshasa race, which is a genderless race of shapeshifters who feed off of the ethereal energy of other beings for sustenance.

The Palladium RPG has Rakshasas as a race of Demons, but here, it is spelled "Raksasha".

Was referenced in the Outer Limits episode, "Under the Bed" an episode about child stealing myths(boogeymen). Also mentioned were Babba Yaga, Norse Trolls, Jinn, and the American Boogeyman.

A group of rakshasas makes a brief appearance in Neil Gaiman's novel American Gods.

In the MMORPG Tantra Online, Rakshasa is a character class resembling a female assassin.

In the game Final Fantasy I (packaged with Final Fantasy II and released as "Final Fantasy Anthology" by SquareSoft for Playstation), there is a Tiger-headed creature called a Rakshasa which is a tough spellcaster. In the original Final Fantasy for the Nintendo Entertainment System, this was shortened to Mancat due to the constraints of the 8-bit machine."

[Quelle: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakshasa. -- Zugriff am 2006-05-08]

46. Tasmiṃ khaṇe rājagehe,
jāto hoti kumārako;
there manussā passitvā,
rakkhasānaṃ sahāyakā.
47. Iti cintiya māretuṃ,
sāyudhā upasaṅkamuṃ;
kim etan tica pucchitvā,
theraṃ te evam āhu te.

46. /47. Gerade als die beiden Missionare kamen wurde im Königspalast ein Prinz geboren. Als die Menschen die Thera's sahen, dachten sie, dass dies Gefährten der Rakkhasa [Dämonen] seien und liefen bewaffnet zusammen, um sie zu töten. Die Thera's fragten, was dies bedeute und sprachen dann zu ihnen:

48. Samaṇā mayaṃ sīlavantā,
na rakkhasisahāyakā;
rakkhasī sā saparisā,
nikkhantā hoti sāgarā.

48. "Wir sind tugendhafte Wanderasketen, keine Gefährten der Rakkhasī [Dämonin]." Die Rakkhasī entstieg mit ihrem Gefolge dem Meer.

49. Taṃ disvāna mahārāvaṃ,
viraviṃsu mahājanā;
diguṇe rakkhase thero,
māpayitvā bhayānake.
50. Taṃ rakkhasiṃ saparisaṃ,
parikkhipi samantato;
idaṃ imehi laddhaṃ ti,
mantvā bhītā palāyi sā.

49./50. Als sie sie erblickten, schrie die Menschenmenge laut auf.  Der Thera schuf zweimal so viele furchteinflößende Rakkhasa [Dämonen] und umzingelte die Rakkhasī und ihr Gefolge. Sie dachte, dass diese Dämonen diesen Platz besetzt hatten und floh voll Furcht.

51. Tassa desassa ārakkhaṃ,
ṭhapetvāna samantato;
tasmiṃ samāgame thero,
brahmajālam adesayi.

51. Der Thera umgab das Land mit einem Schutz, dann verkündete er in jener Versammlung die Lehrrede vom Netz Brahma's1.

Kommentar:

1 Lehrrede vom Netz Brahma's (Brahmajālasutta): Dīghanikāya I, 46ff.: Enthält Ausführungen über die Sittlichkeit und besonders Auseinandersetzungen mit verschiedenen Lehren über die "Seele"

Siehe:

Payer, Alois <1944-- >: Materialien zu einigen Lehrreden des Dîghanikâya. -- D I, 1: Brahmajâlasutta. --  (in Bearbeitung). -- URL: http://www.payer.de/dighanikaya/digha209.htm

"Brahmajāla Sutta

The first sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya. It was preached to the paribbājaka Suppiya and his disciple Brahmadatta. It first explains the sīlā, or moral precepts, in three successive sections   cūla (concise), majjhima (medium), and mahā (elaborate)   and then proceeds to set out in sixty two divisions various speculations and theories regarding the "soul" (D.i.46). Other names for it are Atthajāla, Dhammajāla, Ditthijāla, and Sangāmavijaya. At the end of the discourse the ten world systems trembled (D.i.46). It is said that once when Pinndapātiya Thera recited this sutta at the Kalyāniya vihāra, his mind concentrated on the Buddha, the earth trembled; the same phenomenon occurred when the Dīghabhānaka Theras recited it at the Ambahtthikā, to the east of the Lohapāsāda (DA.i.131).

The Brahmajāla was the first sutta preached in Suvannabhūmi, when Sona and Uttara visited it as missionaries (Mhv.xii.51).

The Sutta is often quoted, sometimes even in the Canon. E.g., S.iv. 286, 287."

[Quelle: Malalasekera, G. P. <1899 - 1973>: Dictionary of Pāli proper names. -- Nachdruck der Ausgabe 1938. -- London : Pali Text Society, 1974. -- 2 vol. -- 1163, 1370 S. -- ISBN 0860132692. -- s. v.]

52. Saraṇesu ca sīlesu,
aṭṭhaṃsu bahavo janā;
saṭṭhiyā tu sahassānaṃ,
dhammābhisamayo ahu.

52. Viele Leute gründeten sich in den drei Zufluchten1 und den Übungspunkten der Sittlichkeit1. Sechzigtausend erfassten die Lehre voll.

Kommentar:

1 siehe oben zu Vers 19

53. Aḍḍhuḍḍhāni sahassāni,
pabbajuṃ kuladārakā;
pabbajiṃsu diyaḍḍhan tu,
sahassaṃ kuladhītaro.

53. Dreitausendfünfhundert Söhne und tausendfünfhundert Töchter  aus guter Familie wurden Novizen.

54. Tato pabhuti sañjāte,
rājagehe kumārake;
tattha kariṃsu rājāno,
Soṇuttarasanāmake.

54. Wenn von da an ein Prinz im Palast geboren wurde, nannten die Könige ihn Soṇuttara.


11. Moral von der Geschichte


55. Mahādayassāpi jinassa kaḍḍhanaṃ;
vihāya pattaṃ amataṃ sukham pi te;
kariṃsu lokassa hitaṃ tahiṃ tahiṃ;
bhaveyya ko lokahite pamādavā

ti.

55. Die genannten Thera's wirkten an verschiedenen Orten zum Heil der Welt, indem sie wie der überaus barmherzige Eroberer auf das unsterbliche Glück verzichteten, das sie schon erlangt hatten [d.h. sie waren schon Arahats, gingen aber noch nicht ins endgültige Erlöschen ein]. Wer könnte [bei diesem Vorbild] nachlässig sein gegenüber dem Heil der Welt.

Kommentar:

Versmaß:

Vaṃśasthavila
(12 Silben; 5.7.; Schema: ja ta ja ra: vadanti Vaṃśasthavilaṃ jatau jarau)

˘ˉ˘ˉˉ˘˘ˉ˘ˉ˘ˉ
˘ˉ˘ˉˉ˘˘ˉ˘ˉ˘ˉ
˘ˉ˘ˉˉ˘˘ˉ˘ˉ˘ˉ
˘ˉ˘ˉˉ˘˘ˉ˘ˉ˘ˉ

Zur Metrik siehe:

Payer, Alois <1944 - >: Einführung in die Exegese von Sanskrittexten : Skript.  -- Kap. 8: Die eigentliche Exegese, Teil II: Zu einzelnen Fragestellungen synchronen Verstehens. -- Anhang B: Zur Metrik von Sanskrittexten. -- URL: http://www.payer.de/exegese/exeg08b.htm


Kolophon


Sujanappasādasaṃvegatthāya kate Mahāvaṃse Nānādesapasādo nāma dvādasamo paricchedo.

Dies ist das zwölfte Kapitel des Mahāvamsa, der zum Vertrauen und zur Erschütterung der guten Menschen verfasst wurde. Der Titel dieses Kapitels ist "Die Bekehrung verschiedener Länder".


12. Vergleich von Mahāvaṃsa, Extended Mahāvaṃsa und Mahāvaṃsa-Tīkā zu Kapitel 12


M = Mahāvaṃsa; EM = Extended Mahāvaṃsa; MT = Mahāvaṃsa Ṭīkā.

"Chapter XII. Here again M. and EM. agree very closely. EM. adds a line here and there (e.g. 3ed, 23 cd, 24cd, 26ab, 51-2) to the M. account and alters the wording in one or two passages (e.g. 12-14) to make the meaning clearer. EM. adds (7) that all the missions consisted of a leader and four others. MT. gives (317.21) the names of the four monks (Kassapagotta, Mūlakadeva, Dundubhissara and Sahadeva (Cf. Dpv. viii. 10 and Sp. I. 68, MBv, 115) who accompanied Majjhima to the Himālayan region. Neither M. nor EM. has these names."

[Quelle: G. P. Malalasekera (1899 - 1973). -- In: Extended Mahāvaṃsa / ed. by G. P. Malalasekera. -- Colombo : Times of Ceylon, 1934. -- LVIII, 380 S. -- (Aluvihāra Series ; III). -- Reprint: Oxford : Pali Text Society, 1988. -- ISBN 0-86013-285-4. -- S. XXVI.]


Zu Kapitel 13: Mahinda's Ankunft